FAMILY QUESTIONS FOR THE FINAL EXAM

Before I post the questions and answers I accepted from the families, let me remind you of a couple things: (1) any papers that were not picked up in class are in an envelope on my office door for you to pick up; (2) remember that I will be available for questions/review for the final from 12-2PM on Monday in our classroom (122), or in my office (121); (3) our final exam is scheduled for Tuesday, 12/13 from 9-12.

FAMILY QUESTIONS ON THE FINAL EXAM (note that I have done some editing and re-wording of the questions and answers you submitted):

Chapter 7, Public Order Crimes (Yellow Family)

1. In "Reefer Madness in Bluegrass Country," the authors compare the marijuana industry with what previous illegal activity that was part of rural Kentucky culture?(1)

ANSWER: illegal manufacture and distribution of alcohol (i.e., moonshining & bootlegging.

(All three questions you submitted were not very good, so I greatly modified one of them.)

BLUE FAMILY (Jen, T.J., Paulie, Sheatiel) earn 6 points, plus 1 bonus pt.

1. What was the first question of the questionnaire Sudhir originally planned to use in his survey of the Robert Taylor Homes, which was ridiculed by J.T. and his fellow gang members? (1)

ANSWER: "what does it mean to be black and poor?"

2. What TWO pieces of sound legal advice did Gary Gardner give the Tulia defendants? (2)

ANSWER: (a) investigate Tom Coleman's background; (b) seek a change of venue (i.e., move the trial out of Tulia)

3. In the opening of Chapter 7, Public Order Crime, Dabney distinguishes MALA IN SE offenses from MALA PROHIBITA offenses. What is the difference between them, and under which category do public order crimes fall? (3)

ANSWER: MALA IN SE -- inherently bad or evil; MALA PROHIBITA -- deemed wrong by law. Public order crimes fall under MALA PROHIBITA.


RED FAMILY (Reagan, Qui, Kelsey, Jordan) earn 6 points, plus 1 bonus point.

1. What is the Byrne Grant Program? (2)

ANSWER: It was part of the 1988 Anti-Drug Abuse Act passed by Congress. This federal program offered state and local law enforcement money for drug task forces, among other crime control efforts. It was the program that was used to support Coleman's operation in Tulia.

2. What was unusual about the warrant the was used to arrest Moore and the other alleged drug dealers in Tulia? (1)

ANSWER: The arrest warrant simply said "delivery of cocaine," and did not specify when or who had sold the drugs and to whom the drugs had been sold.

3. Sudhir told J.T. that some sociologists believed in a "culture of poverty." What is that, and what was J.T.'s reaction to this concept? (2)

ANSWER: "...poor blacks didn't work because they didn't value employment as highly as other ethnic groups did, and they transmitted this attitude across generations." J.T. did not have much use for this; he saw the problem as the demeaning, minimum-wage jobs which are difficult to value or be proud of.


BLACK FAMILY (Nick, Jeremey, Sterling, Adam) earn 6 points, plus 1 bonus point.

1. In Article #19, "The Crash of ValuJet Flight 592:..." in Chapter 8, which I highlighted on the blog, what THREE basic concepts explain crimes committed by private corporations and governments, and how do they explain these crimes? (3)

ANSWER: "...organizational crime results from a coincidence of pressure for goal attainment [organizational motivation or goals], availability and perceived attractiveness of illegitimate means [opportunity], and an absence or weakness of social control mechanisms [social control]."

2. As I noted in my notes on Chapter 8 posted on the blog, the authors of article #19, "The Crash of ValuJet Flight 592:..." go as far as to suggest that: "...the goal of capital accumulation can be a highly criminogenic force for an organization." This alludes to what major theory of crime and deviance? (1)

ANSWER: Anomie

3. As the Black family noted was the most important lesson to be drawn from "Gang Leader for a Day," gang life seems to be a source of primary socialization. What does that mean? (1)

ANSWER: That the gang serves as an institution that provides rules and structure to social and economic practices in areas where many of these traditional structures are failing or absent.


YELLOW FAMILY (Stacy, Brandi, Chelsey, Steven) earn 6 points.

1. In the context of the broad points or themes I highlighted about "Crime Types" on the blog, what did I observe about the apparent disproportionate involvement of minorites, especially black males, in violent and property crimes? (2)

ANSWER: That it is important to acknowledge this fact, but it is also important to note that this is not about race per se, but mainly about where minorities are concentrated in our society, in economically and socially depressed urban areas.

2. In the context of my notes on Article #19, "The Crash of ValuJet Flight 592:..." posted on the blog, what basic tenet of organizational crime theory helps explain the deceit practiced by the Warren Commission which investigated the assassination of JFK? (1)

ANSWER: "that low levels of external social control (i.e., regulation or press scrutiny) provides opportunities to engage in crime."


GREEN FAMILY (Ross, Scott, Erin, Arden, Grace) earn 6 points.

1. Describe the typical white collar criminal and how he/she compares with the typical street criminal. (2)

ANSWER: White collar crime typically involves upper middle class whites, whereas street crime typically involves poor minorities.

2. In "Gang Leader for a Day," what did Sudhir observe about a gang's interaction with the community which would help the police to deal with gangs more effectively? (2)

ANSWER: Sudhir observed that gangs are deeply rooted within their communities, and gang members are respected to a degree. So, the police's effort to crack down on gang involvement in drugs and violence should take into consideration the support that gangs often have from innocent citizens in these communities.
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That's it. Remember, all of the above family questions will be on the exam on Tuesday.

Final Family Activity: Questions for the Final Exam

Before I describe our final family activity, let me call your attention to the description of essay III on the previous blog post, which you want to check out.

FINAL FAMILY ACTIVITY: MAKING UP QUESTIONS FOR THE FINAL EXAM

The families need to start thinking about final exam questions. Specifically, I want each of the families to submit FIVE SHORT-ANSWER questions (and answers) from material we've covered since the midterm exam (THE YELLOW FAMILY ONLY NEEDS TO SUBMIT THREE QUESTIONS, SINCE YOU ALREADY SUBMITTED QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER 7, SOME OF WHICH WILL BE ON FINAL EXAM). Recall that right after the midterm exam, we talked about Chapter 7 in Crime Types. I will be posting the questions and answers which I accepted from those which the Yellow family submitted after their presentation. Also remember that I had a follow-up to the Chapter 7 report posted on the blog, and I covered Chapters 8 & 9 in class and on the blog. For "Gang Leader for a Day," you may make up questions based on the family responses to those three questions, the best of which I posted on the blog. I also highlighted some points from the book in class at the very end of our discussion. The other material to be covered will be some general comments I made about the drug issue and our discussion of "Tulia" during the next two weeks. Remember, I plan on getting through that book in class and/or on the blog before the end of the semester. You should have an idea of what I mean by "short-answer questions," based on the questions you submitted for the midterm, as well as the midterm exam itself.

Our final exam is scheduled for Tuesday, 12/13, of Final Exam Week, from 9-12. I will need your proposed questions NO LATER THAN THURSDAY, DEC. 8TH AT 3PM (that being the day of our last class meeting). I will look over your submissions and try to accept at least two from each family; any more than two I accept will earn your family bonus points. I will, then, post the questions and answers I accepted on this blog by SUNDAY, DEC. 11TH, so you will be able to review them for the final exam. This exercise is worth 6 activity points, plus whatever bonus points you may earn. YOU MUST PARTICIPATE IN ORDER TO EARN THESE POINTS, AND KEEP IN MIND THAT THIS IS A FAMILY EXERCISE, SO I DO NOT WANT INDIVIDUAL SUBMISSIONS FROM FAMILY MEMBERS. AND I WILL ONLY CONSIDER 5 SUCH QUESTIONS.

Essay III Description

As I noted during our class before the break, I might post the description of our final short essay assignment before our next class meeting. Well, here it is --

Essay III
11/28/11

A. In the context of the early trials and convictions of the Tulia defendants, which resulted in exceedingly long sentences (covered up to Part Three, p. 179 in the book), I want you to write a 3-page essay discussing how such an obvious miscarriage of justice was possible. Specifically, I want you to identify and discuss any TWO factors which contributed to this miscarriage of justice. And between the two factors you discuss, which ONE do you believe represents the greatest threat to the proper functioning of our court system in general.

B. As noted above, the essay should be roughly 3 pages. Be sure to indicate page number(s) of any passage(s) from the book which you quote in your essay.

C. This essay is due on TUESDAY, DEC. 6TH. It is worth 25 points.

Family Responses to "Gang Leader for a Day" Questions

Below are the responses that I selected as best. I did a bit of editing, and you'll note that I selected more than one family's responses for each question. At the end I indicate the bonus points that I awarded the families for their work. Finally, REMEMBER THAT I WILL BE MAKING UP SOME FINAL EXAM QUESTIONS FROM THESE RESPONSES, AS WELL AS FROM THE POINTS I HIGHLIGHTED IN CLASS YESTERDAY (11/17).

1. What did you find was the MOST SURPRISING FACT OR OBSERVATION in the book, and WHY?

RED FAMILY: We found the most surprising fact or observation in the book to be that violence isn't always the only way to solve problems between gangs. We were surprised to find that a police officer and a pastor were mediating between the two gangs and were helping to decide what the (informal) consequences should be for the gang that initiated the drive-by shooting. This surprised us because you typically think of gangs resorting to violence as the only way to solve issues. Also, it was surprising because the police officer and pastor were trying to mediate between criminals without punishing them or (openly) passing any sort of judgment on them. Finally, this fact surprised us because the informal agreement between the two gangs was actually reached (one gang couldn't earn money selling drugs for a week) and the agreement was followed by the two gangs, indicating some basic level of respect.

a.) Some credit goes to the Yellow family for making basically the same point, but not quite as well.

BLACK FAMILY: I believe the most surprising fact or observation was how the gang and J.T. in particular accepted Sudhir. Sudhir was able to rise through the ranks and befriend gang members and see how they work, live, and play. It was amazing how they let an outsider come in and eventually run the gang for a very brief period of time. I would have never believed that an outsider had the potential to infiltrate a gang and study them at the same time, but Sudhir did it. With the odds stacked against him, Sudhir managed to prevail and complete a detailed study, while at the same time develop amazing relationships with those around him.

BLUE FAMILY (less credit): The complex infrastructure of the gangs -- that they are run more like businesses with bosses and a lower level workforce. At the bottom of this system are the younger teenagers dealing drugs, who do the dirtiest, most difficult work for the lowest pay. J.T. would go around and check on these lower level workers to make sure they were doing their jobs. Even more challenging, J.T. had to find a way to motivate them despite the low pay.


2. What do you believe is the MOST INSIGHTFUL PASSAGE in the book (no more than a paragraph long), and WHY?

GREEN FAMILY: "I had been hanging around J.T. and his gang for several months by now, and I'd never seen J.T. engage in violence. I felt like his scribe, tailing a powerful leader who liked to joke with the tenants and, when he needed to be assertive, did so quietly. I was naive, I suppose, but I had somehow persuaded myself that just because I hadn't seen any violence, it didn't exist. Now, I HAD seen a different side of his power, a far less polished presentation." (p. 63)

This dealt with Sudhir's reaction to J.T.'s beating of C-Note. Up until this point, Sudhir leads the reader to believe that the Black Kings are this benevolent organization providing law and order in their community. Granted, I knew they dealt with drugs and racketeering, but I still found myself constantly thinking how beneficial they were to the Robert Taylor Homes. After this beating and Sudhir's reaction, it was as if I was suddenly brought back to reality that this is a gang. While gangs may provide certain benefits to a community, criminal and cruel activity still goes on.

RED FAMILY: We found the most insightful passage in the book on p. 43, when Ms. Mae (J.T.'s mom) said: "We live in a COMMUNITY, understand? Not the PROJECTS -- I hate that word. We live in a COMMUNITY. We need a helping hand now and then, but who doesn't? Everyone in this building helps as much as they can. We share our food, just like I'm doing with you."

We found this passage to be insightful because it gives a little different perspective of the Robert Taylor Homes area that is usually just thought to be a crime-ridden area where gangs battle and sell illegal drugs. The passage brings to light that gang members aren't the only people who live in the Robert Taylor Homes area and that those other people who live there do not want to be pitied by others as they struggle to survive just like everyone else in other communities. The passage also brings to light the fact that, although illegal behavior may be involved, the people of the Robert Taylor Homes area are in fact a community committed to helping one another.

BLACK FAMILY: "My mind raced as they spoke. I couldn't believe that a religious leader and a police officer were not only watching this mediation but were actually FACILITATING it. What incentive did they have to do so -- and what would happen if people from the community found out they were helping gang leaders settle their disputes? I was also struck by how levelheaded everyone seemed, even J.T. and Mayne, as if they'd been through this before. These were the same two gang leaders, after all, who had been trying to kill each other, quite literally, with drive-by shootings. I wondered if one of them might even pull a gun here at any moment. Perhaps the strangest thing was how sanguine the community leaders were about the fact that these men sold crack cocaine for a living. But at this moment it seemed that pragmatism was more important than moralism." (p. 109)

Counters the stereotypes of middle and upper class people that gangs are all about violence and consist of ignorant thugs. When in reality this paragraph shows how powerful and feared these gangs are and not only because they can be violent but because they are organized, intelligent, and difficult to understand or predict. Sudhir comments on how "levelheaded" the two gang leaders appear to be, which shows that these gangs are really just a business that happens to operate outside the realm of the law.


3. What do you believe is the MOST IMPORTANT LESSON to be drawn from the book in terms of understanding and dealing with gangs?

BLACK FAMILY: Gang life seems to be a source of primary socialization of sorts and has therefore soldified its position in many communities. The gang serves as an institution that provides rules and structure to social and economic practices in areas where many of these traditional structures are failing or absent. This, therefore, explains why gangs are so difficult to deal with from a law enforcement standpoint.

GREEN FAMILY: The most important lesson in terms of understanding and dealing with gangs is to never judge a book by its cover....Venkatesh shows...that gangs are not always what they seem and even participate in organizations that give back to the community.

YELLOW FAMILY: The most important lesson to be drawn from the book in terms of understanding and dealing with gangs is the fact that gangs are organized groups that have a strong focus on money and unity.

Bonus points:
BLACK FAMILY - 3PTS
RED FAMILY - 2PTS
GREEN FAMILY - 2PTS
YELLOW FAMILY - 1PT
BLUE FAMILY - 1PT
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That's all for now. See you next week when we will see the documentary on Tulia and the famous Zapruder film of the JFK assassination.

Final Lecture Notes on Chapters 8 & 9 in Crime Types

CHAPTER 8: CRIME WITHIN COMPLEX ORGANIZATIONS

Let me add just a few points to those I brought out in class lecture on Tuesday (Nov. 1).

Article #19: "The Crash of ValuJet Flight 592: A Case Study in State-Corporate Crime"

A. This article brings together the private and public sectors -- remiss federal regulators bear part of the blame here.

B. Orgamizational crime theorists have relied on THREE basic concepts to explain the crimes committed by private corporations and governments. At the very bottom of p. 333, the authors note: "Organizational crime theorists have relied on three basic concepts to explain crimes committed by corporations and governments: (1) organizational motivation or goals, (2) opportunity, and (3) social control. The significance of these concepts to a structural-level explanation of state-corporate crime can be encapsulated in the proposition that organizational crime results from a coincidence of pressure for goal attainment, availability and perceived attractiveness of illegitimate means, and an absence or weakness of social control mechanisms." (pp. 333-334) It appears that the above passage brings together at least three of the major theories of criminal behavior that we discussed earlier; namely, ANOMIE, SOCIAL CONTROL (OR BONDING), AND ROUTINE ACTIVITIES.

1. They even go as far to suggest that: "...the goal of capital accumulation can be a highly criminogenic force for organizations." (p. 334), which alludes to ANOMIE theory.

C. "A basic tenet of organizational crime theory is that low levels of external social control (i.e., regulation or press scrutiny) provides opportunities to engage in crime." (p. 335) I highlight this because it fits the case of the Kennedy assassination. The Warren Commission (the official body which investigated the crime) did their work in secret, leaked conclusions to the press on occasion,and generally speaking, were handled with kid gloves by the media. The FBI was unchallenged, and there was no real congressional oversight. So the WC was able to get away with lying and misrepresentation of their own evidence.

***the other articles in this section are interesting, but I am not going to go into them, except to observe that both of them put crime in a broader cultural context, or that the individual cannot be the basis for explaining these crimes.


CHAPTER 9: PATTERNS AND PROSPECTS

A. Dabney makes a valuable point right in the opening paragraph of this chapter. He reminds us that to understand criminal behavior or these various crime types, we must consider THREE interdependent parts of the CRIMINAL EVENT (OFFENDERS, VICTIMS, AND SETTINGS). This is intended to counter the common superficial, unidimensional approach which doesn't even distinguish between various types of crime. SEE THE WHOLE 1ST PARAGRAPH, P. 363.

1. He basically goes on to flesh out this outline, reminding us of the similarities and differences between various crime types.

B. This culminates with a broad (and I believe, appropriate) statement of how this understanding of crime can be applied to controlling or preventing it. SEE "FUTURE PROSPECTS," P. 370. Basically, Dabney questions any "silver-bullet" approach to crime prevention. Prevention and control strategies must be flexible and geared to specific crime types.

C. In addition to the above points from the author's conclusion, I would like to highlight several broad points based largely on my follow-up commentaries on each of the chapters. (OBVIOUSLY, IN TYING SOME POINTS TOGETHER, YOU MIGHT WANT TO PAY SPECIAL ATTENTION TO THESE POINTS AS YOU PREPARE FOR THE FINAL EXAM.)

1. Reflecting back on our early discussion of crime atatistics, it is interesting to note that this text makes lots of use of NCVS statistics as a supplement to or even substitute for crime reports, such as the FBI's UCR. Of course, there were a couple exceptions to this (eg., in the case of homicide, obviously, and public order crimes which are considered "victimless.")

2. In most cases of the different crime types, there was a clear, POSITIVE CORRELATION between an urban environment (more urban) and higher crime rates, which gives some general support to social disorganization theory.

3. The disproportionate involvement of minorities, especially black males, in violent and property crimes. This is important to acknowledge, but at the same time it is also important to note that this is not about race per se but mainly about where minorities are concentrated in our society, in economically and socially depressed urban areas.

4. The rate of recidivism for most street criminals is very high -- ranging from roughly 40-70% for different crime types. This would suggest that we have a lot of work to do to improve our ability to rehabilitate these offenders both IN and OUT of prison (the documentary we saw, "A Hard Straight," is relevant here). Indeed, prisons may not be the best environment to rehabilitate many criminals.

5. Rationalization (or neutralization) of criminal behavior; emphasis on instant gratification ("life as party"); involvement of alcohol, drugs, and guns are characteristics of crime that come through time and again in the many interviews with various kinds of convicted criminals.

6. In addition to formal control efforts mounted by the police, each chapter recognized the role of INFORMAL SCOIAL CONTROL. Indeed, in some cases, just the willingness to report more crime would be a big step forward.

7. Finally, I do believe, as Chapter 8 highlights, that organizations (not just indivivduals) are capable of committing criminal acts. Here again, we need to take a broader approach than most people do.
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That wraps up "Crime Types." Hope to see everyone next week when we begin to discuss "Gang Leader for a Day." Again, as I stressed in class, check out the family activity in connection with reading that book, as well as the Essay II topic I handed out in class last week.

Follow-up to Chapter 7 Report

Before I post my follow-up comments to the Yellow family's report on Chapter 7: Public Order Crimes, let me call your attention to the previous several blog posts, which you need to check out, especially several of you who have been missing-in-action. Also, I handed back the midterm exam today. So, if you want that you'll need to show up. And now, Chapter 7.

FOLLOW-UP COMMENTS ON CHAPTER 7:

A. Important to note that these crimes are categorized as "malum prohibitum" offenses, that is, offenses defined by law but not recognized as inherently evil (as are "malum in se" offenses). Also, they are classified as "victimless" crimes in the sense that there is a willing exchange of desired goods (drugs or sex) between individuals.

1. The consentual nature of these crimes makes them prone to underreporting and it complicates the job of law enforcement, which often has to resort to undercover operations to apprehend the criminals. So, neither the "Uniform Crime Reports" (UCR), nor the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is of much help in getting at the true magnitude of these crimes. For example, note the huge discrepancy between 80,000 arrests for prostitution in 2001 and an estimated 500,000 prostitutes.

B. The economic and social costs of the drug war have been tremendous. A former chief of police in Seattle estimated that the price tag for roughly 30 years of the drug war may be as much as $1 TRILLION! (this is NOT among the figures presented in "Crime Types.")

C. There is definitely a SUBCULTURAL aspect to public order crime -- that drug dealers, addicts, pimps, prostitutes, etc., inhabit a world where these illegal activities are seen as acceptable, which of course lends support to Differential Association/Social Learning theory. Dabney also mentioned the role of "normative neutralizations" in rationalizing the behavior.

1. One might also argue that Anomie/Strain or even Rational Choice theories might be relevant to the article on the organized marijuana business in rural Kentucky. Seems that marijuana has become a huge cash crop as the coal industry and other economic opportunities have declined. (Interesting to note that the medical marijuana business in California also seems to have had a huge impact on agriculture, given that growing marijuana is so much more profitable than growing other crops.)

D. The "Drugs-Crime" article basically concludes that the causal relation between drugs and crime is a two-way street: drugs cause crime and crime causes drugs. As I stressed in class, crime and drugs do go hand in hand, regardless of which came first. Both crime and drugs, I would argue, grow from similar deteriorated social conditions.

E. In the article on hard-core heroin addicts, a typology is brought out which I believe contains at least one crucial point. The authors make an important point about the effects of heroin and when it is most destructive:

"In sum, contrary to popular belief, heroin use does not inevitably lead to a deterioration of lifestyle. Rather, the physiological dynamics of narcotics use tend to be the most destabalizing under conditions where life structure is already weak and incapable of accommodating the physiological demands imposed by increased tolerance." (p. 274) That is, in regard to the effects of any drug, one must consider the larger social circumstances in which the drug is taken and not just the chemical properties of the drug itself.

F. In "The Miami Sex-for-Crack Market Revisited" we see the intersection of two public order crimes -- prostitution and drugs -- with terrible consequences for those caught up in this world, especially in terms of the extreme risk of contracting HIV.

G. A final note: I was glad that the Yellow family skipped over the last article on prostitution, which I believe was perhaps the most poorly written article in the entire book.
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In our next class on Thursday (11/3), we'll be seeing a documentary on the parole system in California, which is connected with an extra credit opportunity that I posted on this blog. Check that out before Thursday.

Another Extra Credit Opportunity

Before describing this additional extra credit opportunity, let me remind you to check out the previous two blog posts on "Gang Leader" and the initial extra credit opportunity connected with a video we will see in class this Thursday (11/3).

ANOTHER EXTRA CREDIT OPPORTUNITY:

Tomorrow evening (Tues. 11/1) at 7PM in the Olin Theater, the African/African American Studies Program is presenting a lecture by Dr. Peter Caster entitled, "Prisons, Race, and Masculinity." You may earn 5 POINTS EXTRA CREDIT by attending his lecture and posting a one-paragraph comment on this blog in which I want you to express what you thought of the talk in general and identify any point which Dr. Caster made which relates to our class on criminal and deviant behavior. Please post your comment NO LATER THAN FRIDAY, 11/4.

LET ME STRESS, YOU MUST POST A COMMENT IN ORDER TO EARN THE 5 POINTS EXTRA CREDIT.

FAMILY ACTIVITY: "GANG LEADER FOR A DAY"

Over the next couple weeks you'll be reading "Gang Leader for a Day," and I would like each of the families to discuss the questions listed below and come up with answers to them. Your answers or responses should be NO LONGER THAN A PARAGRAPH OR TWO AT MOST, AND THEY SHOULD REFLECT THE COLLECTIVE EFFORT OF THE FAMILY. I will give you plenty of class time to confer with your fellow family members, and we will also be discussing the book as a class. More specifically, I will give the families class time to discuss the book on TUESDAY, NOV. 8TH and THURSDAY, NOV. 10TH. Then on the following class, TUESDAY, NOV. 15TH, I will call on each of the families both to present your answers in class and to submit them to me in writing. I will, then consider your answers and post on this blog what I believe are the best answers to each question. These "best answers" I will use as the basis for making up some final exam questions on the book. Those families' answers that are selected as best will earn a bonus point. All PARTCIPATING family members will earn 6 activity points for this exercise.

HERE ARE THE QUESTIONS:

(1) What did you find was the MOST SURPRISING FACT OR OBSERVATION in the book, and WHY?

(2) What do you believe is the MOST INSIGHTFUL PASSAGE in the book (no more than a paragraph long), and WHY?

(3) What do you believe is the MOST IMPORTANT LESSON to be drawn from the book in terms of understanding and dealing with gangs?
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So, please start reading the book when you get a chance and keep the above questions in mind, and be ready to discuss these questions with your family members on TUESDAY, NOV. 8TH.

Also, let me remind you to check out the previous blog post which describes an EXTRA CREDIT OPPORTUNITY coming up next week Thursday, Nov. 3rd.

EXTRA CREDIT OPPORTUNITY

Next week Thursday, Nov. 3rd, I will be showing in class a documentary entitled, "A Hard Straight," about the parole system in California. After seeing this video in class, to earn 5 EXTRA CREDIT POINTS, I want you to post a two-paragraph comment in which you will focus on ONE of the parolees featured in the documentary. The question I want you to address is simply: what could have been done to help this person make a successful transition to life outside of prison, thereby avoiding the personal and social costs of sending him or her back, as over 50% of parolees in California were at that time?

PLEASE POST YOUR COMMENT NO LATER THAN MONDAY, NOV. 7TH.

Family Questions from Crime Types' Reports That Will Appear on the Midterm Exam

Below are the questions and answers I accepted for inclusion on the midterm exam next week (Tues. 10/25). In general, they were not very good and so I did not select many of them. Hopefully, you can do better the next time around. REMEMBER, THESE QUESTIONS WILL BE ON THE EXAM.

CHAPTER 2: HOMICIDE AND ASSAULT (Green Family)

1. Identify THREE ways in which violence is an integral factor of gang life. (3)

ANSWER: (1) violence used during the initiation process, (2) violence used in response to threats from rival gangs, (3) violence used as a way to deter members from leaving the group.

CHAPTER 3: VIOLENT SEX CRIMES (Blue Family)

1. In the view of women who have been victims of wife rape, what are the THREE main causes? (3)

ANSWER: (1) entitlement to sex, (2) rape as punishment, (3) rape as a form of control.

CHAPTER 4: ROBBERY (Red Family)

1. What makes robbery different from other violent crimes such as murder, assault, and rape? (1)

ANSWER: The vast majority of robbery offenders and victims have no prior relationship.

2. Why do carjackers target other criminals? (2)

ANSWER: The participation of other criminals in street culture encourages the acquisition of vehicles most prized by carjackers, and because they are involved in a number of illegal activities they cannot go to the police.

CHAPTER 5: BURGLARY (Black Family)

1. What does SPS stand for, and why is this significant for burglary? (2)

ANSWER: SPS stands for Stolen Property System and it's significance for burglary is that burglars depend on this system to turn stolen items into cash.


That's all folks! See you next Tuesday for the midterm exam.

Follow-Up to Family Reports on Chapters 4 & 5 in Crime Types

Before I post my follow-up comments on the two chapters reported on yesterday (Tues. 10/18), I want to point out that, with the exception of the Blue Family which reported on Chapter 3, you have been neglecting to identify connections with the various theories we covered in the first part of the course. You'll note that my follow-up comments address this missing element.

CHAPTER 4: ROBBERY (Red Family)

A. As was noted in the Red Family's report, robbery is widely underreported. The NCVS indicates that roughly 40% of robbery victims choose not to report the crime to the police.

B. A theoretical connection to Social Disorganization theory (which I presented on the blog) can be found in the following statement: "As is the case with all forms of violent crime, increased population density yields significantly higher robbery victimization rates." (p. 131) -- so densely populated cities have higher rates, which is what the social disorganization theorist would argue.

C. Robbery is different from other violent crimes in that the vast majority of robbery offenders and victims do NOT know each other.

D. Very high recidivism rate -- 70.2% are re-arrested within three years of release from prison. As a couple of the reports brought out, clearly robbers generally have few skills and it is no surprise that many would go back to their criminal ways after being released from prison because that is all they know how to do.

E. Many robbers are "alert opportunists," implying that: "Planning does not appear to play a large role in most robberies." (p. 136) Also, many (one-third or more) are under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol when they commit their crimes -- this clearly goes AGAINST Rational Choice theory.

F. The fact that most "seasoned thieves" invoke some "normative neutralizations" to justify their behavior lends support to Differential Association/Social Learning theory, as does the existence of a SUBCULTURE among robbers where they act as teams.

G. The notion of "life as a party" -- instant gratification -- characterizes the lives of robbers.

H. There is even some support for Anomie/Strain theory in the following observation: "The bottom line is that the offenders, when faced with a pressing need for cash, tend to resort to robbery because they know of no other course of action, legal or illegal, that offers as quick and easy a way out of their financial difficulties." (p. 146)

I. Finally, in the carjacker article it was noted how easy targets (isolated, weak victims, desirable vehicles) sometimes motivated carjackers, which would lend support to Routine Activities theory.


CHAPTER 5: BURGLARY (Black Family)

A. Although burglary is one of the most common property crimes, the rate of burglary has dropped nearly 75% over the past three decades. In fact, other developed countries have higher rates than the U.S..

B. Perhaps surprisingly, the rural rate is higher than the suburban rate which is the lowest. Suburbs are more likely to have neighborhood watch programs, security systems, etc., whereas rural homes tend to be more isolated. Lends support to Routine Activities theory (relative absence of informal or formal control agents).

C. Burglary tends to involve more planning than robbery, but Dabney suggests it is often minimal and many burglars are under the influence of alcohol or drugs at the time they commit their crimes. This would challenge the applicability of the Rational Choice theory.

1. But given that the arrest rate is very low, only 13%, it might be a rational calculation that the rewards are greater than the costs because the likelihood of getting caught is so low.

D. Some support for Differential Association/Social Learning theory in that burglars often work in groups and even have "apprentices" who learn the ropes. Women are more likely to work in groups than men. Also, the article on female burglars confirms my criticism of the feminist perspective (blog notes) -- that female burglars tend to get more lenient treatment in the criminal justice system rather than harsher treatment, as some feminist criminologists claim.

E. In the article on the Stolen Property System (SPS), the authors make a very good point: that we need to look beyond the individual criminal and recognize the broader context of burglary, which includes this SPS, which clearly facilitates this criminal act, not to mention ordinary people who are willing to buy these stolen goods. And, I would add, clearly that the SPS operates on rational business principles.


***REMEMBER THAT THE NOTES ABOVE MAY BE THE BASIS FOR QUESTIONS ON OUR UPCOMING MIDTERM EXAM. AS I NOTED AT THE END OF CLASS ON TUESDAY, THE MIDTERM EXAM WILL ONLY COVER THROUGH CHAPTER 5 IN CRIME TYPES. ALSO, I STILL NEED THE QUESTIONS (AND ANSWERS) FROM THE GREEN AND RED FAMILIES. I hope to see everyone tomorrow, especially since we'll be reviewing for the midterm exam next Tuesday 10/25.

Reminders & Follow-up to Reports on Chapters 2 & 3 of "Crime Types"

REMINDERS:

I am looking forward to reports on Chapters 4 & 5 tomorrow (Tues., 10/18). Please remember to submit your proposed questions for the midterm exam. I need those questions by Thursday of this week because I will begin making up the midterm exam (scheduled for next Tues., 10/25) by the end of this week. Finally, let me remind everyone to be READING "CRIME TYPES" ALONG WITH THESE REPORTS. EVERYONE SHOULD HAVE READ THROUGH CHAPTER 5 BY THE END OF THIS WEEK.


FOLLOW-UP TO CHAPTER 2: HOMICIDE AND ASSAULT

A. Let me first of all clarify that homicide and assault tend to be INTRA-AGED, INTRA-RACIAL (that is, within the same age and racial group), whereas for gender, homicide tends to be INTRA-GENDERED, but assault is more INTER-GENDERED (that is, male on female), especially violent sex crimes, of course.

B. In terms of methodology, most articles involve interviews either with criminals themselves or victims. It is difficult, if not impossible, to do broad surveys. Have to work with a "captive" population (no pun intended).

C. The report on the article on gangs stressed their violent nature. But we'll see in "Gang Leader for a Day" that that is not all there is to gangs.

D. In terms of theoretical connections (which the Green Family neglected to do), I believe Differential Association/Social Learning was perhaps the most relevant. In this context, Sykes and Matza's "Techniques of Neutralization" comes up in a couple articles, and Sykes and Matza's concept is connected with Differential Asssociation/Social Learning.

E. A couple of my own observations.

1. Most homicides start out as an assault, often in the context of a heated argument, which escalates to the point where someone is killed. The encouragement of a crowd and the availablity of a weapon (usually a gun) are also contributing factors. There is also significant involvement of alcohol and/or drugs in violent incidents.

2. Some of the specific examples of Sykes and Matza's "techniques of neutralization" that come up are: (1) in the case of the professional hitman, "denial of victim," "denial of injury," and "denial of responsibility" are used in rationalizing what the hitman does for a living. Also, an interesting application is how women who are battered rationalize the behavior of their abusers, in a sense neutralizing the responsibility of their spouses.

3. An interesting, although minor, point appears in the article on gang violence when a gang member was asked what he believes needs to be done to eliminate gangs. He reeponded that the only way to do that would be to simply kill them -- wipe 'em out -- which I do not believe is a morally viable or justifiable option. But it reveals that all these young people know is violence, so for them it makes sense that they would see violence as the only solution to gangs.

4. Finally, a point that comes through loud and clear is the role of guns, especially assaults which escalate to homicides. This would seem to suggest that gun control might help to reduce the incidence of homicides.


FOLLOW-UP TO CHAPTER 3: VIOLENT SEX CRIMES

A. I especially appreciated the theoretical connections that the Blue Family made with this chapter. Differential Association (again) seemed pertinent, especially when talking about gang rape or group sexual asaults -- behavior, attitudes being learned. Clearly challenges Deterrence and Rational Choice theory, as evidenced by the high recidivism rate for sexual offenses. But the one-in-ten figure is really NOT very high compared to recidivism rates for other crimes. What distinguishes it is that those re-arrested were re-arrested for rape. The other recidivism figure of 42%, I assume, involved being re-arrested for any other crime.

B. Let me stress again, as I did in class, that NCVS statistics are especially relevant to this type of crime which is grossly underreported.

C. One -- perhaps counterintuitive -- finding which was not brought out: "A study by Kleck and Sayles (1990) reveals that resistance, especially violent forms of resistance, serves as effective means of (1) preventing rape completion, and (2) reducing the level of injuries sustained by the victim."

D. It goes without saying that alcohol and drugs are often implicated or involved in violent sex crimes (just as we saw in the case of homicide and assault).

E. Important to note that rape is often committed NOT for the purpose of sexual gratification but out of a desire to dominate and control -- rape is as much a violent act as it is a sexual act.

F. There are many types or categories of rape: stranger rape, gang rape, and some relatively new ones: acquaintance or date rape and wife rape.

G. Dabney outlines some theories of rape in the introduction: (1) gender inequality, (2) pornography, (3) social disorganization, (4) legitimation of violence theory (pp. 82-83). They all make some sense, although I would question the corelations on which gender inequality and pornography theories are based. For example, gender inequality predicts that rape would be higher in patriarchal (male dominant) societies. But Japan is very patriarchal, yet has a very low rape rate.

H. "Riding the Bull at Gilley's" strongly challenges the "PSYCHOPATHOLOGY" view -- that "rape is the result of idiosyncratic mental diseases and that it often includes an uncontrollable sexual impulse." (p. 91) That is, there are not just some sick men out there. Rather, there is a cultural dimension -- how rape is rationalized as male perogative and women are stereotyped as sex objects mainly.

I. This cultural or social dimension also comes theough in the gang rape on campus article. To combat this problem, it is suggested that men need an attitude adjustment. And in the article on wife rape, it is suggested that men be taught not to treat women as sex objects, even if they happen to be their wives and feel entitled to treat them that way.


PLEASE NOTE THAT ANY OF THE ABOVE FOLLOW-UP MATERIAL MIGHT BE THE BASIS FOR QUESTIONS YOU MAY SEE ON THE MIDTERM EXAM.

Hope to see everyone in class tomorrow.

Wrap-up on Anomie/Strain Theory, Contemporary Perspectives & Guidelines for Making up Short-Answer Questions

WRAP-UP OF ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY

I trust those of you in attendance got the point about Merton's theory and his 5 modes of adaptation, the main criminal path being that of "innovation." I also talked briefly about a couple later modifications. At the very end, I made a few scattered remarks about research support for the theory, so let me go back to that.

F. Research on this theory offers mixed support. Looking at official figures, the inverse relationship between social class and crime does appear to hold up, especially considering serious offenses (but there is less of a difference when considering minor offenses).

1. There is even a mixed picture when we consider the relationship between unemployment and crime. Citing a couple studies from the 1980s, Prof. Akers observes: "...there is little evidence that unemployment motivates people to commit criminal acts. Moreover, crime is as likely to affect unemployment as vice versa." (especially these days with widespread drug-testing)

2. Focusing just on the "social structural correlates" of crime, such as social class, poverty, unemployment, racial heterogeneity, there is some fairly strong evidence of the influence of such factors. And this is seen as consistent with Merton's anomie theory.

G. Despite some of the problems we've seen with both social disorganization and anomie theories, our two MACRO theories, I would endorse the general policy recommendations that flow from these theories, as Prof. Akers describes:

"The utlimate policy implications of any structural theory is that basic social changes need to be fostered to remove the criminogenic features of economic, political, and social institutions of society. The clear implication of anmoie theory, for instance, is to promote the integration of cultural goals and socially approved means, and the redistribution of opportunities in the class system."

And, I would add, David Callahan in "The Cheating Culture" draws a similar conclusion.


CONTEMPORARY "THEORIES"

A. Many of the more contemporary theories, to my mind, don't represent much of an improvement over the traditional theories we've covered to this point. Indeed, they seem to be more concerned with exposing the biases in the way our criminal justice system operates.

CONFLICT THEORY: biases based on social class and race; that we have a two-tiered justice system with lower classes and minorities getting harsher treatment. Or, that laws (such as drug laws) seem more directed at these groups than people of higher socio-economic status.

MARXIST THEORY: biases based on social class; that laws mainly protect property rights of the capitalist class and the focus of our criminal justice system is on street crime engaged in mainly by lower and working classes.

FEMINIST THEORY: biases based on gender, especially the subordinate position of women.

B. No doubt these "theories," or better, perspectives, bring out some valid issues, but many of these theorists tend to exaggerate the role of these factors and they are more IDEOLOGICAL. Among them, I would say the feminist's claim that there are biases against women in our criminal justice system may be the most unjustified. The conflict theorists have helped to expose the issue of racial bias, which I believe there is evidence for, especially considering the impact of the drug war, but many criminologists (such as Prof. Akers) downplay the role of race as an "extra-legal" variable in criminal justice decision-making. The Marxists may have a point in suggesting that capitalist societies (with greater inequality) tend to have higher rates of crime than socialist ones. But they have been guilty of idealizing socialist systems, or just assuming they would have lower crime rates. Also, they did not seem to be aware of the obvious differences in crime rates between various capitalist countries.

1. An interesting point some Marxist theorists have raised is -- that as the former Soviet Union , Eastern Europe (I would say, even China) have become more capitalist, their crime rates have risen dramatically. But that is a bit simplistic. We must consider how repressive the former Soviet Union was, for example, and that other things could explain this surge.

CONCLUDING OBSERVATION ON THE SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIMINAL AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR:

Even though no theory stands out as THE answer to the many different types of criminal and deviant behavior, I believe sociologists have identified some important social factors that must be considered not only in terms of explaining this behavior but also in, ultimately, addressing this problem more effectively.


GUIDELINES FOR MAKING UP SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS FROM THE CHAPTERS IN "CRIME TYPES" WHICH YOU WILL BE REPORTING ON.

1. Remember, I am asking each family to submit THREE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS on anything you reported on in your chapter. You may submit them to me in writing or via email. I will consider them and post on the blog the ones I accept.

2. Types of questions I do NOT want: NO TRUE-FALSE, NO MULTIPLE CHOICE.

3. Fill-in-the-blank is ok. But basically what I mean by short-answer are questions that can be answered in a word, sentence, or a few sentences, at most. For example, a question I might ask about the theories might be: What is the first proposition of Differential Association theory? Answer: criminal behavior is learned. (I could also ask, briefly discuss why this is significant, which could be answered in a couple sentences. That would make it a 2 or 3 point question.)

4. You can make up multiple-point questions, but no more than three or four points.


REMINDERS:

***Several of you still need to turn in your first essays. Please do so ASAP. I will probably be handing back the essays next Tuesday (10/11), which means that will be the deadline for late papers.

***On Tuesday, 10/11, our next class. We will start right off with the Green Family reporting on Chapter 2: Homicide and Assault, and then move on to the Blue Family reporting on Chapter 3: Violent Sex Crimes.

Critical Passages on Labeling theory & More Lecture Notes

As usual, I got bogged down in trying to present the theories again today, so I am going to make amends on the blog. First, I will give you the passages on labeling theory which I quoted in class. And let me add, in reference to Nick's question about research to support this theory, it has been many years since I have read some of this literature, so I can't cite any specific studies, but I do recall that some of the books published in this area made a case for this theory and cited evidence. But as the critical passages indicated, whatever evidence there is for labeling theory is weak at best and subject to question.

PASSAGES ON LABELING THEORY:

First, from Howard Becker's "Outsiders," a statement of the theory:
"One of the most crucial steps in the process of building a stable pattern of deviant behavior is likely to be the experience of being caught and publicly labeled as a deviant. Whether a person takes this step or not depends not so much on what he does as on what other people do ...being caught and branded as a deviant has important consequences for one's further social participation and self-image."

And then a couple critical comments from Prof. Akers:
"People are labeled as delinquent, criminal, homosexual, mentally ill, drug addicts, child molesters, and so on largely on the basis of overt acts they have committed. Therefore, the deviant behavior itself is prior to and forms the basis for the stigmatizing label. THE BEHAVIOR CREATES THE LABEL MORE THAN THE LABEL CREATES THE BEHAVIOR; AND SUBSEQUENT DEVIANT BEHAVIOR CONTINUES THE LABEL MORE THAN THE LABEL CONTINUES THE BEHAVIOR."

Finally, despite the strong criticism, Prof. Akers, among others, does see some promise in Braithwaite's revision (concept of "reintegrative shaming"). Akers fairly, and very broadly, identifies what he sees as the principal strength and principal weakness of labeling theory -- "The principal strength of labeling theory is that it calls attention to the unintended consequences of social control. Its principal weakness is that it essentially ignores primary deviance and seriously underestimates the influence that other variables have on behavior in the first place and continue to have on its future occurrence."


MORE LECTURE NOTES:

SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY

A. This theory originated at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and it is closely associated with a broader theoretical perspective known as URBAN ECOLOGY, that Chicago School sociologists developed around the same time. They are closely interrelated.

1. The urban ecologists developed various models to describe the city, its growth and development. They identified certain "natural areas" or zones, some of which had distinctly higher rates of criminal behavior. Why?

2. The social disorganization theorists contended that these high crime areas were characterized by a variety of indicators of social disorganization. For example, an especially crime-prone area was the so-called "zone of transition" -- an area near the commercial core which was changing from residential to commercial. Characterized by physical decay, poor housing, incomplete or broken families, high rates of illegitimate births, and an unstable, transient, heterogenous population -- all regarded as indicators of "social disroganization."

a.) Other characteristics identified in later versions of the theory (Sampson and Groves, 1989): lack of informal friendship networks, low participation in organizations, etc.

3. Basically, you have normal people trying to cope with these abnormal conditions, and in doing so tend to get involved in crime.

4. This is the first truly MACRO theory we've covered, placing the blame on such social conditions and focusing on crime rates (instead of why particular individuals may get involved in crime).

B. They also contended that rapid industrialization and urbanization caused this social disorganization which, in turn, undermined social control exercised through traditional social order and values.

C. Certainly things have changed in our cities and inner city areas since the 1920s. If anything, it could be argued that conditions have deteriorated even further, especially in inner city areas and crime rates are even higher (even if nationally they have declined in recent years). This is brought out in books such as "The Truly Disadvantaged" (1989). Yet, there is some basis to question this theory. As Prof. Akers observes:
"To what degree the relationship between inner city residents and crime is the result of social disorganization remains uncertain...."

"Often the research does not carefully measure social disorganization...."

"The very fact that crime and deviance are high within an area is itself sometimes used, tautologically, as an empirical indicator that the area is socially disorganized...." (i.e., evidence of circular reasoning)

"Furthermore, even in those areas characterized as the most disorganized, only a minority of youths and a smaller minority of adults are involved in crime." (So, how do you explain that based on this theory? You can't really.)

1. C. Wright Mills, an important American sociologist, raised the problem of potential bias in an essay entitled, "The Ideology of Social Pathologists" (social pathologists being another term for social disorganization theorists). He suggested that these social disorganization theorists had a strong anti-urban bias because of their small-town, religious upbringing which they assumed to be more in line with social order.

D. Despite the apparent bias, among other problems noted, I believe the theory makes some sense and it suggests the need to address poor social conditions in order to address the crime problem -- conditions such as you will read about in "Gang Leader for a Day."


ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY

A. Like social disorganization theory, this is basically a STRUCTURAL (or MACRO) theory which provides an explanation of the concentration of crime in lower class urban areas and among lower class minorities, as well as the overall high crime rate in America.

B. Although the concept of "anomie" (a French term) derives from the work of a famous French sociologist by the name of Emile Durkheim, which meant a condition of "normlessness," Robert Merton gave it a different twist. He defined it as follows:
"Anomie is the form that societal malintegration takes when there is a dissociation (or disjunction) between valued cultural ends and legitimate societal means to these ends."

C. This condition of anomie (or means-ends disjunction), Merton argued, was endemic to American society. (Indeed, one could argue today that the gap is as wide as it has ever been between the so-called "haves and have-nots.")

1. We have a strong emphasis on success in a monetary or material sense, but NOT an equally strong emphasis on socially approved means -- that is, getting ahead by any means is a preoccupation. And this disjunction between means and ends is perpetuated by continuing economic and social inequality. (A good example of this can be found in a recent book by David Callahan entitled, "The Cheating Culture." Let me quote a couple relevant passages to show you what I mean:

Referring to an earlier period in American history, Callahan observes:

"Amid the rough-and-tumble business competition and lax regulation, a certain level of lawlessness became part of economic life. An 'anything goes' mentality thrived in a country where everyone supposedly had a shot at success -- and where judgments of personal worth centered heavily on net worth. As the great sociologist Robert Merton once said, putting his finger on an ugly paradox: 'A cardinal American virtue, 'ambition,' promotes a cardinal American vice, 'deviant behavior.'" (p. 15)

and Callahan refers to Merton's theory a bit later: "...economic struggle is all the more dangerous when mixed with high expectations of well-being -- that is, the expectation that one should be as happy as the shiny rich people on television and in magazines seem to be. Writing in the mid-twentieth century, the sociologist Robert Merton observed that Americans are taught that everyone can succeed if they work hard enough. America was 'a society which places a high premium on economic affluence and social ascent for all its members.' But Merton also pointed out that there is no 'corresponding emphasis upon the legitimate avenues on which to march toward this goal.' Americans worshipped financial success without being too concerned about how people got ahead. 'The moral mandate to achieve success thus exerts pressure to succeed, by fair means if possible and by foul means if necessary.' These pressures were especially poisonous, Merton said, in a nation where not everyone actually could succeed -- where there were limits on the economic opportunities that were available."

"Merton could have made these points yesterday. The pressures on Americans to make a lot of money are extremely high -- higher, maybe, than they've ever been before. To be sure, there are many legitimate opportunites to do well financially. Yet ultimately the opportunities are finite. America needs only so many skilled and well-paid professionals. In an economy where structural conditions allow only one-fifth or so of earners to really get ahead, the other four-fifths of Americans are stuck in the bind that Robert Merton identified: they live in a society with insanely high material expectations but with limited ways to meet these expectations."

"What to do in this conundrum? Whatever you can get away with." (pp. 172-173)


That's all for now. I will continue with anomie/strain theory either tomorrow on this blog or in class on Thursday. PLEASE CONSIDER SOME OF THIS AS YOU PUT THE FINISHING TOUCHES ON YOUR FIRST ESSAY.

More Lecture Notes

It seems I never get through the material I planned to get through in class, so I am going to resort to posting more lecture notes on the blog. Be sure to check this material out, and don't hesitate to ask any questions you may have about it.

Before we get back to Akers' "Social Learning" theory (an updated version of Sutherland's "Differential Association" theory), let me re-state that famous description of the symbolic interactionist concept of the "looking glass self," which underlies this theory of crimnal behavior: "I am not who I think I am. I am not who you think I am. I am who I think you think I am." -- which suggests that our identity is a product of our interaction with others in which we take into account their attitudes and expectations, so if we are interacting with others who happen to be criminals, we are more likely to develop a criminal identity, to come to see criminal behavior as ok.

Now, Akers' Social Learning theory:

F. Akers identifies FOUR major aspects of social learning theory, which I present below, recognizing that some of this is repetitious:

1. Differential Association: Akers suggests that two types of associations are involved here: DIRECT association or interaction with criminals or INDIRECT association and identification with more distant reference groups (which Sutherland did not acknowledge). This really has to do with IMITATION, which is the fourth major aspect of this theory.

a.) Person absorbs certain norms and values through these associations. And Akers does note that the most important or significant of these contacts are (face-to-face) primary group contacts.

b.) In this context, Akers also describes what PRIORITY, DURATION, FREQUENCY, and INTENSITY entail: "Those associations that occur earlier (priority), last longer and occupy more of one's time (duration), take place most often (frequency), and involves others with whom one has the more important or closer relationship (intensity) will have the greater effect on behavior."

2. Definitions: these are the attitudes or meanings one attaches to a given behavior. Or, orientations or rationalizations, etc. which define the commission of an act as right or wrong, good or bad, justified or unjustified.

a.) Akers distinguishes between POSITIVE definitions which define criminal behavior as morally desirable (or positively), and NEUTRALIZING (or negative) definitions which favor criminal behavior by excusing or rationalizing it.

1.) The latter type of definition is well-illustrated in an article by Sykes and Matza entitled "Techniques of Neutralization" -- that delinquents especially learn such techniques such as "denial of responsibility," "denial of injury," among a few others. Or, more generally, excuses such as: "everybody has a racket," "I can't help myself, I was born that way," etc. (You will see a number of references to this in "Crime Types.") Donald Cressey, a colleague of Sutherland's, wrote a book on trust violators (white collar crime) in which he saw these individuals rationalizing their behavior.

b.) These definitions may be so extreme that they almost require you to violate the law, such as radical, revolutionary ideologies. (eg., Islamic terrorists who use (or misuse) their religion to justify acts of terror.)

c.) In general, the point is that learning such definitions creates a mind set in which one is more likely to engage in criminal behavior.

3. Differential Reinforcement: whether you refrain from or commit a crime depends on past, present, and anticipated future rewards or punishments for one's actions.

a.) POSITIVE reinforcement -- money or approval which is more an indirect, SOCIAL reward.

b.) NEGATIVE reinforcement -- escaping punishment, pain or disapproval. That when you commit a criminal act and are not apprehended or punished for it, tends to reinforce such behavior. (eg., a child who uses foul language and is never punished or confronted for it, will probably continue to use such language.)

4. Imitation: (noted earlier, aspect #1) I would add that this would include identifying with fictional characters on TV or in the movies.

G. According to Prof. Akers, this has been among the most tested of the theories and it has stood up well. It is also supported by other studies which have shown that key groups such as the family, peer groups, gangs exercise considerable influence over individuals either in a conventional or deviant way. (This was even borne out in a study Prof. Akers and his students conducted on college men involved in rape.)

H. This theory (Differential Association/Social Learning) stands out as one of the most broadly applicable theories, underlying a variety of programs involving some sort of group therapy. I would also argue that PROBATION and PAROLE programs relate insofar as they seek to guarantee a person under such supervision stays away from their former criminal associates. (Later in the semester we'll see a video on parole in which this point comes out.)

1. Unfortunately, many of these programs have not been that successful. One could blame the heavy caseloads of most probabtion and parole officers, but I believe this lack of success also has to do with a major flaw or weakness in the theory.

I. I believe that part of the reason for the limited success of prevention and treatment programs based on this theory has to do with the fact that this theory does NOT really get at the ROOT of the problem -- where crime itself comes from. It may be ok as a theory of CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR, but NOT as a theory of CRIME.

1.) According to differential association, criminals learn from other criminals, who, in turn, learned from a previous group of criminals, etc., etc., etc., AD INFINITUM...... So, where did the first criminal group come from, to get the ball rolling, so to speak? The devil? (Similarly, if delinquents tend to come from broken homes -- or broken homes, like criminal groups, cause delinquency, then one could ask, where did these broken homes come from? How did they develop? Ultimately, you need to uncover the circumstances which give rise to broken homes, or criminal groups.)

a.) Sutherland himself even admitted as much when he made the following remark: "Since criminal behavior is thus developed in association with criminals, it means the CRIME IS THE CAUSE OF CRIME." (my emphasis), which is entirely CIRCULAR. So, there is no theory of crime as such in differential association, or social learning, for that matter.

2.) Ultimately, we must seek to uncover and understand the root causes of crime itself and attempt to remedy them. I believe Elliot Currie attempts this in his book, "Reckoning." This inevitably will take us into larger questions concerning flaws in society, because individuals are bound up with the larger society.
(Similar to the so-called "MEDICAL ANALOGY:" that ultimately we need to treat the disease and not merely the symptoms of the disease. Which is not to say, however, that we should ignore treating the symptoms, which differential association may help in doing. But it is no cure.)


That's it for now. I may highlight a few of the above points in class tomorrow (Thurs., 9/29), especially my criticism of this theory, but for all intents and purposes we will move on to the next theory. Also, I will give the families some time in the beginning to confer on how they are going to divide up responsibilities in regard to the chapter in "Crime Types" you will be reporting on.

Wrapping up Deterrence/Rational Choice/Routine Activities & Biological and Psychological Theories

AS I noted in my previous blog post, I planned to post some more lecture notes so that we can make it through these theories and get on to "Crime Types" in another two weeks or so. I may make some brief comments about these notes in class tomorrow, but for all intents and purposes, I plan to move on to the sociological theories tomorrow (Tues., 9/27).

WRAPPING UP DETERRENCE/RATIONAL CHOICE/ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORIES

A. In addition to the passages critical of deterrence theory (which you'll find in the previous blog post), I'd like to make a couple more general observations about the impact of such thinking on criminal justice policy over the past 30 years or so.

B. There can be no doubt that deterrence theory has had an obvious impact on criminal justice policy. It is generally believed that SWIFT, CERTAIN , and SEVERE sanctions for criminal acts will reduce crime in society. The popular ("knee-jerk") approach of the vast majority of politicians is "get tough."

1. For example, over the past 30 years or so, we seen the restoration of capital punishment, abolition of parole and indeterminant sentencing, mandatory-minimum sentences, generally longer sentences, especially for drug offenses, "3 strikes and you're out," trying juveniles as adults.

2. This has led to a quadrupling of our prison population since 1980 (from 500,000 to over 2 million). But the overall crime rate has not come down that dramatically, even though in the late 1990s and more recently (2008-2010) crime rates have come down somewhat. In general, there is not much evidence that potential criminals are being deterred, although one could argue that we are certainly INCAPACITATING more criminals today, which may be responsible for lowering crime rates.

a.) Of course, there are other possible explanations for the recent decline -- one possibility might be a decline in the population of young males, which is the most crime-prone population.

3. Shock incarceration, boot camps, and an experimental program called "Scared Straight" can all be considered versions of "get tough," scare tactics, but they have not been that successful. Follow-up research on "Scared Straight," in particular, largely punctured the hoopla when it was first introduced. Two researchers (Lundman and Scarpitti) looked at "Scared Straight," and many other such programs, and concluded: "'Our own research and the research of others, lead us to the inescapable conclusion that few, if any of these efforts successfully prevented delinquency.' The authors suggest...so far, the program hasn't been devised that will knock out juvenile crimes. With the best of intentions, the lifers at Rahway (the New Jersey prison where "Scared Straight" was first tried) can't transform city schools, poor and broken families, jobless summers." In other words, in the absence of changing the social environment substantially, one can't expect much from scare tactics or "get tough" approaches.


BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES:

A. The following brief overview of biological and psychological theories of criminal behavior is not intended to be comprehensive or exhaustive. By treating these theories so briefly, I do not mean to imply that they are not worth careful consideration. My main intention is to present these theories as a COUNTERPOINT or CONTRAST to the various sociological theories which, of course, emphasize the role of SOCIAL forces over and above aspects of our biological or psychological make-up.

B. Lombroso and the Early Biological Theories

1. The classical school of criminology (i.e., deterrence) was dominant up until the late 19th century when what is known as "biological positivism" took hold, which directly challenges the notion that crime is rational behavior. (In fact, I would go as far to suggest that biological and psychological theories see criminal behavior as a product of some biological or mental DEFECT or ABNORMALITY, rather that ordinary, rationally-calculating individuals.)

2. The early biological criminologists viewed criminals as a distinct set of people who were biologically inferior to law-abiding citizens, or inherently defective in some way. Preeminant among them was Cesare Lombroso, a self-described "medical anthropologist" and physician, who wrote "The Criminal Man" in 1876 which, despite its major flaws, went through 5 editions. He has been considered the "father of modern criminology" because he used a scientific methodology to study criminals (and NOT because of the strength of his theory).

3. In his research, Lombroso compared Italian prisoners (representing the criminal population) with soldiers (representing the "normal" population). He found that the prisoners shared distinctive physical traits or abnormalities which identified them as being a "born criminal type" -- really throwbacks to primitive man. Traits such as asymetry of face or head, large ears, receding chin, twisted nose, etc.

4. There is an obvious problem with both of the samples he used: prisoners do NOT represent all criminals, and even worse, soldiers are in no way representative of the normal population. Indeed, that was largely the basis of Charles Goring's refutation of Lombroso's theory in his 1913 book, "The English Convict." Goring took a much broader sample of the normal or non-criminal population and found no significant physical differences with English convicts.

5. Despite Goring's rather thorough critique, Lombroso's idea did not die. It was resurrected by E.A. Hooten in 1939, who argued that criminals are basically "organically inferior." (Indeed, Edwin Sutherland, the father of American criminology, developed his theory of DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION in part as a critical response to Hooten. Sutherland also pioneered the field of white collar crime, which suggested that only focusing on street crininals was inadequate.)

C. More modern biological theories

1. By the 1950s, biological theories in criminology had pretty much been discredited. Sociological theories were coming into vogue. But biological theories did not die but were resurrected and have become more sophisticated due to our increasingly sophisticated understanding of human physiology and genetics.

a.) For example, in the 1960s biological explanations got a short-lived boost from the "XYY super-male criminal theory" -- that an additional Y chromosome makes an individual more volatile and aggressive. But, among other problems, it was found that only a small proportion of XYY males commit crimes of any kind (lots of exceptions, that is), and there was no evidence that the XYY syndrome is the specific cause of any criminal behavior. (And that is not to mention that female criminals were overlooked.)

2. Modern biological theories of crime and delinquency, (often based on advances in genetics, brain function (eg., serotonin levels in the brain), neurology, biochemistry, are considered more respectable, despite some methodological problems. These theories are clearly more sophisticated than the early, simplistic BIOLOGICAL DETERMINISM (biology is destiny, that is) of people like Lombroso. They acknowledge the role of other social factors, and largely relegate biological factors to a secondary role as PROPENSITIES or PREDISPOSITIONS (that is, biological factors may PREDISPOSE someone to commit a crime but they do NOT DETERMINE that someone will commit a crime).

D. Policy implications of biological theories

1. Older, more deterministic theories would lead to more drastic measures, such as "selective breeding," which Hooten actually suggested, or completely isolating these born criminals in prison, or executing them, since they were biologically determined to commit crime.

2. Contemporary biological theorists support dietary therapy, genetic counseling, drug therapies, but they would also support changes in the social environment. In this context, you would still have to deal with the problem of "false positives," that is, people who may have these criminally-prone biological characteristics but who do not commit crimes. Often talking about 50% or more, not just a few exceptions. So, would early (preventive) intervention with some drug therapy, for example, be justified if half of those receiving it really did not need it?


E. Psychological Theories

1. One type of psychological theory that was more popular some years ago when PSYCHOANALYSIS was more in vogue, is the PSYCHOANALYTIC theory based on Freud's view of the human psyche, consisting of: ID, EGO, SUPEREGO. Without getting very specific, one could say that the psychoanalytic explanation relies heavily on the existence of irrational, unconscious motivations (id) not being properly handled or controlled by other aspects of the psyche (ego, and especially, superego or conscience). Or, the flip side would be an overbearing superego which would give rise to "repressive sexuality," or excessive guilt.

a.) It is difficult to assess the empirical validity of psychoanalytic theories because they rely on a careful examination of individual cases by a trained psychoanalyst, and however compelling such case studies may seem, you cannot extrapolate to the larger population. It is difficult to replicate and independently verify the psychoanalyst's diagnosis.

2. Then, you have what could be called PERSONALITY theories. Here you are dealing with more conscious, observable (measurable) aspects of personality. The basic argument being that criminals have abnormal, inadequate or specifically criminal personality traits that set them apart from the law-abiding people. This would include traits such as aggressiveness, impulsiveness, sensation-seeking, risk-taking, etc. (although we should also acknowledge that these traits do NOT necessarily manifest themselves in criminal behavior.)

a.) Apparently, research on the causative effects of such personality traits on criminal and deviant behavior has been INCONSISTENT.

b.) You also run into the problem of TAUTOLOGY (circular argument or true by definition and therefore incapable of being disproven). For example, psychopathic personality being measured, in part, by a prior history of criminal and deviant behavior, which would make the theory that a psychopathic personality leads to criminal behavior true by definition.

3. Psychological counseling of various kinds is widely employed in delinquency prevention and trestment programs, as well as in virtually every residential and non-residential facility for treating criminal offenders. But the effectiveness of such counseling has not been demonstrated, which would suggest perhaps that psychology is not the problem, but something else needs to be addressed.

FINAL CRITICAL OBSERVATION ABOUT BOTH BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES:

I believe neither theory by itself (or even combined in some way) can offer an adequate explanation for criminal behavior for the basic reason that: THE INDIVIDUAL IS NOT A SEPARATE AND DISTINCT BIOLOGICAL OR PSYCHOLOGICAL BEING. INDIVIDUALS ARE ALSO SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BEINGS. That is to say, the individual is really a system of relations which includes the social and cultural dimensions as well as the biological and psychological dimensions. Also, given the fact that crime is a matter of social definition, that would suggest that the social dimension is ultimately more important than the biological or psychological in explaining criminal behavior.
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That's all for now. I will make a few brief comments on what I have just posted on the blog, but basically, I will start to consider the main sociological theories tomorrow (Tues., 9/27).

Passages on Deterrence & Rational Choice theories

Below are the passages I quoted in class this morning (Thurs., 9/22), all of which are critical of both deterrence and rational choice theory.

First, from a book entitled, "The Mythology of Crime and Criminal Justice" (4th edition):

In a section entitled, "General Deterrence": "A simple test of deterrence is whether states or countries with the death penalty have lower homicide rates than those who don't. There is no evidence to indicate that this is true. The United States is the only Western democracy that retains capital punishment; it is also the country with the highest homicide rate in the industrialized world. Comparative analyses of regions within the U.S. reveal the same pattern. Southern states account for about 80 percent of all executions, and the South is the only region with a homicide rate above the national average. The homicide rate in states that have retained the death penalty is 6.6; the rate for non-death penalty states is 3.5." (p. 335)

And a more general comment about "get tough" policies that have prevailed in our criminal justice system for the past 30 years or so: "Longer sentences for repeat offenders continue to be a political panacea for crime. It is an easy solution to sell because it seems logical. According to popular folk wisdom, severe punishment and the certainty of prison will deter crime. That may be commonsense logic, but it is wrong. The simple fact is that prison does not deter crime, and severe sanctions probably increase the amount of crime in society. If prison terms deterred further criminality, we would expect that people who go to prison would be among those least likely to return there. However, the fact is that within 3 years of release from prison 47 percent were reconvicted for a new crime."
"So the commonsense logic of deterrence is neither logical nor sensible. It is based on a fundamental misunderstanding of both criminals and crime. For deterrence to work, the offender must be a logical actor who understands the consequences of criminal behavior, knows the penalties, and weighs the costs of the crime against the benefits of crime. Logic and calm reflection are simply not parts of the crime equation. In addition, a sizable number of offenders are people without hope, living in desperate circumstances. They are the poor, the unemployed, the uneducated, the socially alienated. Fear of prison is a relatively minor consideration when stacked up against the hopelessness of their day-to-day existence. Yet, police and politicians continue to pledge eradication of mythical crime problems through more law and order and more punishment." (pp. 362-363)

Then, from Ronald Akers on rational choice theory:

"Does an offender choose to commit a crime with full knowledge and free will, taking into account only a carefully reasoned...set of costs and benefits? If it is this kind of pure rationality that rational choice theory assumes, then the theory has virtually no empirical validity. The purely rational calculation of the probable consequences of an action is a rarity even among the general conforming public." (p. 24)

Finally -- referring to a study of repeat offenders: "...their actions and assessment of risks were unrealistic, even to some extent irrational. They were unable to make reasonable assessments of the risk of arrest, did little planning for the crime, were uninformed about the legal penalties in the state where the crime was committed." (p. 25)
(a) And it was in this context that we brought out a few examples of criminals' ineptitude, which is much more common than careful planning.

That's all for now. I will be posting some more lecture notes on the blog over the weekend, so check them out. See you next week.

First Family Activity: "Crime Types' Chapter Reports

As I mentioned in class yesterday (Tues., 9/20), we are going to be dividing the class up into five groups (or families) tomorrow (Thurs., 9/22). In addition to dividing the class up into groups, I will also be assigning each group a chapter in "Crime Types" that you will be responsible for reporting on to the rest of the class. Each group will, then, read and prepare an oral report on your assigned chapter. Plan on taking roughly 30 minutes to cover each chapter and make sure that each group member contributes to this oral report. More specifically, in these oral reports I want you to address the following:
(1) A general overview of the chapter, including the selected articles. You might have each group member take a piece of this: for example, one or two of you focus on the introduction and then have other group members focus on each of the selected articles. PLEASE DO NOT TRY TO COVER EVERYTHING because that would take too long. Focus on key points and a few supporting examples and statistics. You need to exercise some selectivity here.
(2) Draw out at least a couple connections to the theories of criminal behavior that I am currently presenting in class lecture. And by "connections" I mean not only points which support a particular theory, but also points which may go against or contradict a theory.
(3) Identify implications of what you have learned about your crime type which may have some use in developing strategies for controlling or reducing that type of criminal behavior.
(4) Finally, I want each group to submit to me in writing (or via email) THREE SHORT-ANSWER EXAM QUESTIONS (AND ANSWERS), which I may use on either the midterm exam (or the final exam, if we cover that chapter after the midterm exam).

Below is the list of groups and the chapter that each group will be responsible for:
GREEN FAMILY: CHAPTER 2: HOMICIDE AND ASSAULT
BLUE FAMILY: CHAPTER 3: VIOLENT SEX CRIMES
RED FAMILY: CHAPTER 4: ROBBERY
BLACK FAMILY: CHAPTER 5: BURGLARY
YELLOW FAMILY: CHAPTER 7: PUBLIC ORDER CRIME

In a couple weeks, I will post a schedule of dates when each group will be expected to give its presentation. At this point, my guess is that we will begin these presentations around Oct. 6th or the 11th. LET ME ALSO STRESS, HOWEVER, THAT EVERYONE IS RESPONSIBLE FOR READING ALL OF "CRIME TYPES," NOT JUST THE CHAPTER YOUR GROUP IS REPORTING ON. I will be reporting on the other chapters in the book. This activity is worth 8 points for all PARTICIPATING group members.

Loose Ends from Thursday's (9/15) Class & Some Lecture Notes

Let me follow up on a few things I tried to bring out in yesterday's class. I did not feel terribly good about my performance and hopefully I can make amends on this blog for some things that may not have come across clearly. Also, I am going to post a few lecture notes which I did not get to, so we don't get too far behind. Finally, by the end of next week, I will give you a desription of just what I plan to do with our first book, "Crime Types."

I trust all of you are reasonably clear about the pitfalls of crime statistics, which is not to say, of course, that we should just forget about such statistics. As Joel Best stressed, statistics are important as a basis for various social policies; we just need to be careful how we interpret them and we need to ask some questions about them.

As you recall, I quoted a brief passage from that article from the Spartanburg Herald Journal from last year (Sept. 14, 2010), "FBI ranks SC third in violent crime," which noted that despite being third in violent crime, SC had also experienced a significant decline in all categories of crime in 2009. At the very end, the article quoted James Alan Fox, a well-known criminologist who "...said that while the downward trend is encouraging, the economy 'could come back to haunt us' because of a nearly 10 percent drop per capita in police budgets in the past few years."
"'There is a connection between the economy and crime rates, but it's not that when the economy is bad, people go out and commit crime,' Fox said. 'When the economy is bad, there are budget cuts. Less is spent on youth crime prevention and crime control in the street.'"

a.) Actually, in that last paragraph, Fox seems to be suggesting that we should not be surprised if we see a RISE in crime in the future, and not just because of a bad economy but how that bad economy affects programs in crime prevention. Also, as some of you observed in your comments on the recent decline in crime rates, budget cuts for police departments may mean fewer reports, hence an apparent decline in crime.

Toward the end of class, I made some general comments about theory and specifically criminological theories. Recall, I distinguished between MACRO and MICRO theories. Let me go over that again here, and then post a few new lecture notes.

1. MACRO theories -- focus on the question of why there are variations in group rates of crime and deviance. For example, explaining why the United States has such a high violent crime rate compared to other developed countries. These theories are more STRUCTURAL, dealing with groups, classes, communities, whole societies.

2. MICRO theories -- why do some individuals commit criminal acts and others don't. More PROCESSURAL -- focus on the process by which an individual comes to engage in this behavior, or what is it about an individual, his or her particular experiences, which leads them to commit crimes.

3. On balance, we'll see that most theories, including the sociological ones, are MICRO-level theories, although there are a couple with a distinctively MACRO focus. (I would insist that these two levels are always intertwined.)

C. Finally, it should be noted that criminological theories draw on various disciplines -- from biology and psychology to sociology, history, economics, etc. The fact that many theories reflect these different disciplines and levels (of reality) is really a testatment to the complexity of human beings.

Regarding the xerox handout of Orlando Patterson's commentary, "The Lost Distinction Between 'Explain" and 'Justify'," I trust you all got the basic point, which I insist is especially important to keep in mind in this class. Although Patterson aims his analysis at conservatives who attacked Mrs. Clinton, he is also careful to point out that liberals are guilty of falling into the opposite trap, an oversocialized view of the individual which denies individual responsibility. I may come back to this briefly, but next Tuesday I plan to begin talking about the major theories of crime.

Follow-up to Thursday's Lecture & Notes and Reminders

NOTES AND REMINDERS:
It is early Sunday afternoon and it appears that only 7 of you have posted your comment on those FBI crime figure trends. I'd like to see all of you post your comments by tomorrow (Monday, 9/12). As I mentioned in class, I'd like to use some of your responses as we get into the topic of crime statistics on Tuesday. I will be making a few additional comments about the issue of defining deviance and crime, and then get into crime statistics. I will also have a couple handouts for you on Tuesday.

I may not be in my office tomorrow (Monday, 9/12) until late in the day because I am having some work done on my house and I will have to be home for at least part of the day. I hope I'll be able to get in by late afternoon (3 or 4PM).

After venturing into the topic of the Kennedy Assassination at the end of class last Thursday, I mentioned that I've written a few papers on the subject which you are welcome to read. One of these papers is on my much-neglected faculty website. If you go there and click on the assassination of JFK, it will take you to a 40-page paper I wrote on "Time" magazine's coverage of this event from 1963-1999. That is the only paper, I believe, that is accessible online. I have hard copies of others in my office.

FOLLOW-UP TO THURSDAY'S LECTURE:

I trust that my getting off on a bit of a tangent with the Kennedy assassination did not confuse you as to the point I was trying to make about defining deviance. Recall, that after I basically rejected Matza's completely relativistic definition of deviance, in which almost anything might be considered deviant, I presented Goode's definition, which is better. But Goode's definition still hinges on peoples' attitudes and opinions, which I was arguing may be (and quite often are) based on myths, prejudice and certainly not fact. Ultimately, I believe we should seek a basis IN FACT for labeling behavior as deviant and punishing or condemning people because of it. This point is even more important when we talk about CRIME, because in the case of crime, the state or government gets involved in punishing or condemning people for engaging in these acts. And in the case of JFK, or some aspects of "business as usual," you have examples of deviant and criminal behavior which in fact deserve condemnation but isn't because people are confused or ignorant of the facts.

I will come back to this again, briefly, next Tuesday (9/13).

Finally, remember to weigh in on that first individual exercise, which is described in the previous blog post.

Welcome & First Individual Exercise

Welcome to this blog which I have set up for this course, Soc. 220: Criminal and Deviant Behavior. We will be using this blog for a variety of activities this semester, which would include the following: (1) For what I call "activities and exercises" in the syllabus, such as the one described below. I may ask you to comment on some video program I show in class, or on something in the assigned reading, etc.. You will be called upon to contribute questions for both the midterm and final exams, which will be posted on this blog. I may also use this blog to post descriptions of some of the short essays you'll be writing during the semester. (2)I may use this blog on occasion to post lecture notes, if I get behind in class, and I will post passages from other sources which I may quote in class. Perhaps most frequently, I will use this blog to follow-up on a class lecture or discussion, or answer a question I was not able to answer satisfactorily in class. (BUT PLEASE DO NOT EXPECT THAT I WILL BE POSTING EVERYTHING I COVER IN CLASS ON THIS BLOG.)
(3) I may offer you some extra credit opportunities during the semester, which will usually involve your posting a comment on this blog. (4) Finally, you are, of course, welcome to use this blog to comment on or ask questions about anything we cover in class or the assigned reading.
When I do post a description of an exercise or anything else, I will always be sure to mention it in class and remind you to check the blog. Nonetheless, I would suggest that you get in the habit of checking this blog once or twice a week anyway.


FIRST INDIVIDUAL EXERCISE: For the past two years the FBI's "Uniform Crime Reports" has been reporting fairly substantial DECLINES in the crime rate nationally. For example, between 2008 and 2009, violent crime dropped 5.3%, robbery dropped 8%, and property crime dropped 4.6%. Between 2009 and 2010, the FBI reports similar declines: violent crime dropped 5.5%, robbery dropped 9.5%, property crime dropped 2.8%. So, my question is, what gives? Does this surprise you? And could you offer some thoughts or explanation on this trend, especially in light of the fact that these years have obviously been difficult ones economically in our country, with high unemployment rates?
Please respond to the above questions by posting a comment on this blog. All I am looking for is a paragraph or two. There is no "right" answer or answer I am looking for. I am as mystified by these numbers as you may be. Please post your comment NO LATER THAN MONDAY, SEPT. 12TH. This exercise is worth 5 activity points.