Family Questions for the Final Exam

Below are the questions I accepted from the families. Remember, these will be on the final exam.

BLACK FAMILY (Thomas, Natalie, Grant, Matt) 5 points

1. In the context of the discussion of the various drug cases in "Tulia," why did public defenders usually encourage their indigent clients to accept plea bargains?
(2)

ANSWER: Public defenders were poorly compensated for their efforts, only $400 per case, and so they were not motivated to do a good job. And they were also allotted only $500 for investigation purposes, which is grossly inadequate to properly defend someone. So, they usually spent their time trying to get the "best deal" for their clients.

2. Regarding "the most important lesson" to be drawn from "Gang Leader for a Day," the Black Family noted that: "the general lack of opportunities force many people to either work for the gangs or cooperate with them to make money to survive..." In a follow-up comment, how did I relate that to Prof. Ahrens' view of crime? (2)

ANSWER: that, as Ahrens stressed: there is little opportunity for legal, intelligent action in this disorganized world. And that it is this disorganized world that must be addressed in order to deal with the crime problem.


BLUE FAMILY (Marie, Meredith, Kit Jessica) 5 points

1. Why might auto theft attract the professional thief? (1)

ANSWER: There is only a 14% arrest rate, the lowest of any crime category.

2. What is a "fence," and why is this person significant for a certain type of crime? (2)

ANSWER: A fence is someone who buys and sells stolen goods, and this person is a crucial player in the crime of burglary. Without fences, burglars would have a hard time to get rid of the stuff they steal or turn it into cash.


GREEN FAMILY (Aubrey, Miya, Melanie, Sara, Jeremy) 5 points

1. What is the difference between what is called "real rape" and "simple rape?" (2)

ANSWER: Real rape is aggravated rape, involving violence and weapons, whereas simple rape is date or acquaintance rape and it often dismissed as "not real."

2. In the book "Tulia," who was the "mayor of Vigo," and what got him involved in the war on drugs? (2)

ANSWER: Gary Gardner, and he got involved when his son refused to submit to a drug test in school.


RED FAMILY (Wilson, John, Catherine) 5 points

1. After offering some reasons he would give an extraterrestrial to explain why certain drugs are illegal, what does Michael Pollan suggest (in "A Very Fine Line") might be the criteria for legal drugs? (2)

ANSWER: "A capital letter at the beginning of their names and a 'TM' at the end."

2. Identify any TWO things in Tom Coleman's background that should have disqualified him to be an undercover narcotics officer. (2)

ANSWER: Any two of the following: (a) he was openly racist, (b) was a pathological liar, (c) had an arrest warrant for theft and abuse of official property from a previous job in law enforcement, (d) he had walked away from debts, one of them over $6,900.
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That's all folks. See you Thursday afternoon at 2PM.

Reminders & Tulia Notes and Plan

Reminders: At last check, several people still have not posted their comment on "A Hard Straight." Remember, the deadline for that is this coming Friday, Dec. 11th.
We probably won't have much time tomorrow for the families to confer about final exam questions. Nonetheless, you should be making up some questions individually. The families will have some time in class on Thursday (12/10), our last class, to determine which four questions you want to submit. AGAIN, THE DEADLINE FOR THAT IS FRIDAY, DEC. 11TH AT NOON. I have read most of the in-class essays you wrote last Thursday and should be able to hand them back in class tomorrow, 12/8. Finally, continue reading "Tulia," which you should be finishing this week.
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TULIA NOTES AND PLAN: I am going to post some lecture notes below, but let me first lay out a "game plan," of sorts, for how we will cover the rest of this book this week. First, tomorrow (Tues., 12/8) I will be showing a documentary on Tulia. It runs about 55 minutes. It was done as this case was unfolding and you will hear from many of the characters, with two notable exceptions: Vanita Gupta, and Terry McEachern. One way of getting a handle on this book is to try to remember the cast of characters and the parts they played in this story. I have pared down my notes considerably, so that on Thursday I should be able to get to the end of the book. Below are some things I planned to talk about tomorrow.

LECTURE NOTES: We left off last Tuesday, 12/1, about to get into Chapter Four, The Mayor of Vigo.

A. Gary Gardner (the informal mayor of Vigo), bankrupt farmer, was in the midst of fighting s school board decision to institute a drug testing program, which his son refused to participate in (a case which he won, by the way). When he heard of the big drug bust in Tulia, he began saving articles and any other information relevant to the case.

B. He was especially troubled by the biased press coverage -- in the Tulia Herald the headline read: "Tulia's Streets Cleared of Garbage." He was also troubled by statements from the sheriff and district attorney, both of whom talked about the accused as if they were guilty. Gardner felt, in particular, that Sheriff Stewart applied the law too rigidly.

C. The author goes into Gardner's background. But most significantly, Gardner made a decision to draft a letter to the Tulia defendants (based on his new-found legal expertise), which he did not send right away, but he eventually did after he got a call from someone he had helped years ago. That letter actually contained two very sound pieces of legal advice: (1) he urged them to seek a change of venue (i.e., move the case out of Swisher Co.) and (2) he strongly suggested they investigate Tom Coleman's background.

Part Two

Chapter Five: "Deep Cover"

A. Other attorneys representing other defendants from the Tulia bust were surprised at the flimsy case the prosecution presented to get Joe Moore convicted and sentenced to 90 years.

B. Blakeslee focuses on one attorney in particular, Paul Holloway. He had a reputation for doing exhaustive pretrial preparations and he refused to play the standard plea-bargain game for indigent defendants.

1. In Texas, fees for indigent lawyers (or public defenders) were capped at $400, with only an additional $500 for investigative purposes, which is grossly inadequate and creates a strong incentive to plea bargain. (To give you some idea how inadequate those caps are: it is not unusual for an attorney to charge $100 AN HOUR for his services, and in terms of investigation, for example, ordering a DNA test in a case costs THOUSANDS.)

C. Holloway was troubled by the police reports on the cases which provided little detail and no corroborating evidence, which McEachern excused in the case of Coleman because he was supposedly operating "deep cover." Holloway went on to discover some of Coleman's checkered past, perhaps most significantly that Sheriff Stewart HAD ACTUALLY ARRESTED HIM IN RESPONSE TO AN ARREST WARRANT, WHILE HE WAS UNDERCOVER. McEachern had NOT informed the defense of this. But when Holloway approached Judge Self with such information, Judge Self refused to throw the cases out and McEachern successfully blocked the defense from presenting this to the jury.


Chapter Six: Officer of the Year

A. Holloway decides to do some further digging in Coleman's background by contacting his ex-wife Carol Barnett, and she gave him an earful, including the revelation that she was afraid of him.

B. Blakeslee goes on to talk about Coleman's dad who was a Texas Ranger. Coleman wanted to follow in his footsteps, but he got in trouble in school, dropped out in the 11th grade. His dad pulled some strings to get him a job as a prison guard and deputy, but he was not highly motivated and he was inattentive on the job. And this is not to mention his problems with debt, his divorce, etc.

C. It is in this chapter that Blakeslee desribes how McEachern successfully blocked efforts to get this information about Coleman presented to the jury. HOWEVER, IT SHOULD BE STRESSED THAT BOTH MCEACERN AND JUDGE SELF HAD AN OBLIGATION TO JUSTICE TO ACT ON THIS INFORMATION AND PROBABLY THROW THESE CASES OUT. SEEMS, HOWEVER, THEY WERE ONLY INTERESTED IN WINNING THESE CASES, EVEN IF THERE WAS A VERY GOOD CHANCE THESE PEOPLE WERE INNOCENT.


That brings us up to Chapter Seven (p. 106), where I'll pick up with my abbreviated notes in class. See you tomorrow.

Reminders

For those who saw "A Hard Straight" on Tuesday (11/24), don't forget to post a response to the question I posed on the previous blog post, Individual Activity, last Friday, 11/20. For those of you who did not see it, when you get back to campus go to the circulation desk in the library and ask for this DVD on reserve. IT IS FOR USE IN THE LIBRARY ONLY. There is a viewing room downstairs which can fit a few people. It might be a good idea to see it with some of your classmates. It runs an hour and 15 minutes. To earn the 4 activity points, you need to see it and post your comment by the last day of classes, FRIDAY, DEC. 11TH.

DON'T FORGET TO START READING "TULIA." IF AT ALL POSSIBLE YOU SHOULD TRY TO READ THROUGH PART II (UP TO P. 179) BY NEXT TUESDAY (DEC. 1ST). IT WOULD ALSO BE A GOOD IDEA TO TAKE SOME NOTES ON IT. YOU WILL BE DOING YOUR THIRD AND FINAL ESSAY ON THIS BOOK, AND WE MAY DO IT IN-CLASS ON THURSDAY, DEC. 3RD, FOR WHICH YOU COULD USE YOUR BOOKS AND WHATEVER NOTES YOU MAY HAVE TAKEN.

I will be handing back your papers when you get back on Tuesday. Hope everyone had a good holiday and will be ready to wrap this semester up when you get back.

Individual Activity: "A Hard Straight"

I handed out in class yesterday (11/19) a description of an individual activity in connection with viewing the video, "A Hard Straight," this coming Tuesday (11/24). Below are the details of this assignment.

After viewing "A Hard Straight" in class on Tuesday, Nov. 24th, I want you to compose and post a couple-paragraph response as a comment on this blog post, in which you will focus on ONE of the three parolees featured in the documentary. What I want you to address is simply: what could have been done to help this person make a successful transition to life outside of prison, thereby avoiding the personal and social costs of sending him or her back, as over 50% of parolees in California are today?

This activity is worth 4 points and is due NO LATER THAN THE LAST DAY OF CLASSES FOR THIS SEMESTER, FRIDAY, DEC. 11TH. (The reason for the long response time is that I anticipate some of you may miss the showing next Tuesday and so will have to see it on your own when you come back after the break. I will put it on reserve in the library after I show it next Tuesday.) NONETHELESS, I BELIEVE IT WOULD BE BEST IF YOU CAN SEE IT NEXT TUESDAY.

Reminders & Some More Lecture Notes

Reminders: For those who attended the lecture on drugs and film last Thursday, remember you need to post a brief comment about it in order to earn the extra credit points. Don't forget the paper focusing on two articles on a particular crime type is due this Thursday (11/19), and I plan to devote that class period to your brief reports about what you found. In class tomorrow (11/17), I plan to wrap up the remainder of Chapter 5 and then Chapter 6 in the text. Finally, mainly for those who were missing last Thursday, I stressed that you need to purchase "Tulia". I do plan to cover that book during the final two weeks of the semester.
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LECTURE NOTES ( I left off last Thursday where the author begins to address PROFESSIONAL CRIME p. 168)

PROFESSIONAL CRIME

A. Hagan opens with a couple examples of what might be considered "professional" crime and then gets into the whole notion or concept of professional crime.

1. It does seem to fit the definition of professional be gives (bottom, p. 168). But he basically decides to use it because it is widely used in the literature (which, to my mind, is not really an acceptable justification).

a. I agree with Cressey who "...warns that many skilled criminals are simply slightly better than other crooks at lying, cheating, and stealing, and that we should be careful about calling them 'professionals'." (p. 169)

2. Sutherland's characterization of the "professional thief" (1937) makes sense. These are criminals that are clearly more committed to crime than the occasional or conventional criminal. "In his original formulation, Sutherland saw the professional thief as characterized by crime as a sole means of livelihood, careful planning, reliance on technical skills and methods, and a migratory lifestyle. Professional thieves were found to have a shared sense of belonging, rules, codes of behavior, and a specialized language." (p. 169)

3. Hagan, then, goes on to describe various types --

B. Scams/Cons

1. Gives several examples. Some do not require great skill. But to be successful you have to have CONFIDENCE (and perhaps some acting ability) and gullible victims. (As P.T. Barnum once observed: "There's a sucker born every minute.")

2. Many "too-good-to-be-true" opportunities for easy money and "get-rich-quick" schemes out there, that are really cons or scams. They are proliferating on the Internet; I am sure you see these all the time in your email inbox.

3. Many scams border on the edge of slick business practices, such as used car dealers.

C. Identity Theft

(Although Hagan gives some idea of the magnitude of this crime, it warrants more than just a sentence. In fact, many of the Internet scams mentioned above are aimed at identity theft.)

D. Ponzi Schemes

1. Hagan discusses the origin and nature of such schemes, but unfortunately overlooks the most recent and sensational example: Bernard Madoff who was recently convicted; involved 10s of billions of dollars.

2. Ponzi and Pyramid are basically the same thing: early customers being paid off with money obtained from later ones.

E. Boosters (or professional shoplifters)

1. Like any other professional, the booster employs more skill and planning than the typical amateur shoplifter. Often work in groups and focus on certain items, as noted in Crime File 5.3 "Shoplifting" (pp. 182-3)

F. Cannons (or professional pick-pockets)

1. Requires skill, dexterity, art of misdirection. Notes how South Americans are the world's most skilled, even have a pickpocketing school in Colombia.

G. Professional Burglars

1. Gives a nice overview of this group and how involved and organized it is, using involving several people. Given this, law enforcement needs to pay attention to all aspects of this activity in order to crack down on it. (See last paragraph p. 184 for a brief description of some of the people involved.)

2. Safe-crackers or "box men" fall under this category -- really just professional burglars who specialize in breaking into safes.

3. Professional fence is crucial to success of professional burglars. "Professional burglars could not operate on a long term basis without reliable relationships with fences willing to buy large quantities of stolen property on short notice." (p. 186)
Which is why police often set up their own fencing operation to uncover burglars or burglary rings.

H. Paper Hangers (forgers of money, checks, other documents)

1. Notes how counterfeiters are still around and have been helped by the development of advanced color copiers, although the government itself has made great strides in printing more tamper-resistant money.

2. Phony credit cards is a growing area and logically so, since credit cards have become so much more pervasive in our society.

3. Leads into intellectual property theft, video piracy, cable service theft -- billions of dollars involved.

I. Professional Robbers

1. In contrast to most other professional criminals, professional robbers use force or the threat of force, which the author suggests does not require much skill, especially if one has a gun.

2. One major difference with the amateur is that professional robbers focus more on commercial establishments rather than individuals.

J. Professional Auto Theft Rings

1. Notes some of the sophisticated techniques involved in stealing cars.

2. Also notes how many stolen cars end up overseas where they can fetch a much higher price.

3. "There is only a 14 percent arrest rate for auto theft, the lowest of any crime category." (p. 192), which certainly may be part of the attraction, especially for the professional thief.
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That brings us up to CRIMINAL CAREERS OF PROFESSIONALS (p. 194). You will note that I skipped over a few of the many types of professional criminals mentioned in the text. Of course, as always, please incorporate these notes in your own notebooks.

Reminders & Family Points From "Gang Leader For a Day"

Reminders: I know several people went to the lecture yesterday afternoon after class. Remember, to earn the 4 points you have to post a brief response on this blog -- specifically as a comment on the blog post entitled, EXTRA CREDIT OPPORTUNITY. Also, YOU ALL NEED TO MAKE SURE TO PURCHASE A COPY OF "TULIA," WHICH THE BOOKSTORE IS SENDING BACK TODAY. So you may have to go to your local bookstore or find it online.
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FAMILY RESPONSES TO "GANG LEADER FOR A DAY"

(1) Most surprising fact or observation:

GREEN FAMILY: The most surprising observation was that gang members are willing to risk their lives for very little money. Their participation is based more on loyalty to the community and the sense of unity that the Robert Taylor Homes produced.

(a) To which I would add: Dealing drugs was not very lucrative but it was better than nothing or some menial job. And J.T. and the other gang members clearly were committed to the community -- to looking out for tenants, not just themselves. They probably felt good about themselves in this context, even if they were engaged in other, more destructive criminal activities.

BLACK FAMILY: How inhabitants of the Robert Taylor Homes used sex as currency for almost anything they needed -- appliances, diapers, drugs, place to stay, weapons, rent, and to avoid prison.

(a) To which I would add: I would make two points about this: (1) Most importantly, this is an indication of how desparate the plight of these people was -- that there was so little money to be had legitimately through jobs or even government welfare, that they had to resort to selling themselves for basic necessities. (2) Also, it hearkens back to a feudal-like economy based on barter.

(I never got the Red family's response to this question.)


(2) Most insightful passage.

GREEN FAMILY: "He fancied himself a philanthropist as much as a leader....He mandated that all his gang members get a high-school diploma and stay off drugs. He gave money to some local youth centers for sports equipment and computers. He willingly loaned out his gang members to Robert Taylor tenant leaders, who deployed them on such tasks as escorting the elderly on errands or beating up a domestic abuser....A drug economy, he told me, was 'useful for the community,' since it redistributed the drug addicts' money back into the community via the gang's philanthropy." (p. 115)

This passage shows how J.T. wants to justify his gang's activity and give them a legitimate role in the community. His goal is to explain how intertwined the gang is in the community, making it seem to be a philanthropic organization and not just a bunch of ignorant criminals running around selling drugs.

BLUE FAMILY: "The next day I would wake up free of the hundreds of obligations and judgments I'd been witness to. But J.T. wouldn't. He'd still bear all the burdens of running a successful underground economy: enforcing contracts, motivating his members to risk their lives for low wages, dealing with capricious bosses. I was no less critical of what he did for a living. I also wanted to know more about his professed benevolence and how his gang acted on behalf of Robert Taylor's tenants. And I still knew very little about J.T.'s bosses." (p. 143)

Sudhir said this toward the end of his stint as "gang leader for a day." It reveals the kind of leadership skills J.T. needed to operate this illegal, underground economy.


(3) Most important lesson.

BLACK FAMILY: The most important lesson is that it is very hard to prevent or deter crime in areas such as the Robert Taylor Homes, because (1) the cops are either not around or look the other way or, in some cases, are corrupt and take bribes to overlook criminal activities; (2) the general lack of opportunities force many people to either work for the gangs or cooperate with them to make money to survive and possibly go to school and maybe even escape the projects.

(a) To which I would add: This lesson touches on the point Prof. Ahrens made in that passage I gave you to analyze for essay II -- that there is little opportunity for legal, intelligent action in this disorganized world. And that it is this disorganized world that must be addressed in order to deal with the crime problem.

RED FAMILY: In terms of understanding and dealing with gangs, the most important lesson to be learned would involve an assessment of means and goals. In the author's interaction with characters such as J.T. and Ms. Bailey, the issue of lack of access to legitimate means constantly arises. While many people may assert that the solution to this impoverished, crime-ridden community would be such things as education, a steady job, etc., Venkatesh discovers that the answer is not that simple. For some of these gang members, this gang involvement is perhaps one of the only means of making money to support their families. While their methods of making money, supporting and feeding their families may seem somewhat controversial or uncanny, as outside observers of this sort of culture, we must realize that though their means may be different from our own, they are attempting to reach the same goals we are.

(a) To which I would add: Although we share similar goals, there is no question but that we have much more access to legitimate means to achieve them, whereas illegitimate means are predominant in this impoverished gang subculture.
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That's it. INCORPORATE THE ABOVE IN YOUR NOTES. IF I ASK ANY QUESTIONS ABOUT THIS BOOK ON THE FINAL EXAM, THEY WILL COME FROM THE ABOVE RESPONSES.

Remainder of Lecture Notes on Chapter 4

Before I post these lecture notes, make sure to check out the previous blog post today which describes an extra credit opportunity tomorrow.
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I left off talking about "Rape as a Violent Act." So, let me pick up with "Sexual Predators"

3. Sexual Predators: Hagan gives background on the passage of "Megan's Law," which requires states to inform local authorities when a sexual predator is being released in their community -- so people would be aware of these people and better able to protect their children. (Although from the labeling perspective, such a policy may only serve to reinforce this behavior.)

4. Stalking: California and 20 other states have passed laws to prevent this. A survey "discovered that stalking was a much bigger problem than previously believed -- about 1.4 million victims annually." (p. 131)

ROBBERY

A. Hagan defines it: "...theft through violence or the threat of violence," and notes how it is concentrated in our largest cities -- the "quintessential urban crime."

B. The rewards are not that great, although the sentences are stiff. And he notes some dumb things bank robbers have done (which reflects poorly on the rational choice theory which assumes robbers are rationally calculating the costs and benefits of their actions.)

C. He also talks about CARJACKING, which involves the use or threat of force to steal a vehicle. Is a quick way to get around some of the more sophisticated auto-theft devices -- simply attack the driver in the car.

D. In the context of Conklin's TYPOLOGY OF ROBBERS (the typology itself being insignificant in my view), he makes another point which casts a shadow over rational choice theory. Of a study of armed robbers in Montreal, he says, "Most were under 22 years of age, wore no disguise, and usually stole less than $100. Nearly half of the robbers either did not plan ahead at all or planned their robbery far less than an hour in advance. The robbers indicated that they viewed armed robbery as the fastest and most direct means of getting money compared with burglary and fraud. Younger robbers in particular claimed that they enjoyed the thrill, excitement, status, feeling of power associated with the crime." (p. 134) -- that is, the focus was all on the potential rewards, no consideration of possible costs was evident.


DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

A. Hagan documents the extent of domestic violence, such as child abuse and increased attention to it. (Hagan relies heavily on the work of Straus and Gelles. I knew Straus from graduate school, and I have reason to suspect that some of these figures may be exaggerated because of how broadly he defined abuse. This is NOT to say, of course, that this is still not a huge problem. It is.)

B. Somewhat surprising was a finding that husbands and wives are equally likely to batter each other. (Straus, again)

C. Elder abuse likely to grow and suspicion that it is grossly underreported.


CRIMINAL CAREERS OF VIOLENT OFFENDERS

A. Hagan points to a seriously misguided prediction, which I was unaware of. He says, "Conservative writers in the early 1990s predicted a massive wave of violent superpredators. W.J. Bennett, Dilullio, and Walters in BODY COUNT: MORAL POVERTY AND HOW TO WIN AMERICA'S WAR ON CRIME (1996) predicted that the United States was about to experience unprecendented violence, blamming this on moral poverty rather than joblessness, racism, and inequality. Not only did their forecast never come true, but crime declined the most in the very areas that they predicted it would be worst." (p. 140)

B. Hagan talks about the "culture" and "subculture" of violence, which I believe fits with what Venkatesh revealed in "Gang Leader for a Day." But Hagan also throws some cold water on this argument by citing some studies which indicated that lower classes and minority groups do not have attitudes which favor violence.


SOCIETAL REACTION

A. He opens by talking about the need to do a better job to crack down on chronic or career offenders who are responsible for most crime. And he talks about the need for early crisis intervention in domestic violence cases.

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That's all for now. We will pick up with Chapter 5 tomorrow in class.

Extra Credit Opportunity

Tomorrow (Thurs. 11/12) the History Dept. is sponsoring a guest speaker who will be speaking on the history of drugs, which is pertinent to our discussion of that issue in connection with reading "Tulia." To earn 4 extra credit points, I'd like you to attend Dr. Robert Stevens' lecture, "Shooting Celluloid: How to Shape Our Ideas About Addiction" at 4PM (right after our class) in the Olin Theater. In addition to attending, I want you to post a one or two-paragraph response on this blog focusing on anything you felt was interesting and informative about his talk. YOU NEED TO POST YOUR RESPONSE IN ORDER TO EARN THE 4 POINTS.

Amendment to Paper Topic Description

Given the problem with your texts that was revealed yesterday (11/5) in class, I am going to amend the paper assignment I posted on this blog last Friday, Oct. 30th. PLEASE FOLLOW THE DIRECTIONS GIVEN IN THIS AMENDMENT.

PAPER TOPIC AMENDMENT
11/6/09

Basically, I am simply going to eliminate the part of the original paper assignment which asked you to discuss how your articles relate to the treatment of that particular crime type in the text. So, I still want you to locate and read TWO articles about any type of crime within the broad categories of violent, property, and white collar crime. You might still consult the table of contents of these chapters to get some idea of particular types of crimes. I want you to discuss what you found in the articles about this crime type and address the question of the implications of what you've learned about this type of criminal behavior for policies to better control or reduce it.

Given that I am cutting out a part of the original assignment, I am going to reduce the suggested length of the paper. It should be roughly 5-6 pages. I STILL WANT XEROX OR PRINTED OUT COPIES OF THE ARTICLES ALONG WITH THE PAPER. And you will still be called upon to give a brief presentation in class on what you found. And I am going to stick with the original due date of THURSDAY, NOV. 19TH.
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Later today I am going to go over to the bookstore to see if I can't get you a full refund for this miserable excuse of a textbook. I honestly had no idea that the texts you bought were missing a good chunk of chapter 4, and had other problems which came to my attention yesterday. I will keep you advised.

ONE FINAL REMINDER: Several people still need to turn in essay II.

Reminders & PAPER TOPIC DESCRIPTION

Don't forget that next week Essay II is due (on Thurs. 11/5) and we will be wrapping up our family activity on (Tues. 11/3). Both of these things are described in the previous blog post (Wed. 10/21).

Below is the description of the short paper assignment mentioned in the Course Outline. I will NOT be handing out a hard copy of this description, so please refer to this blog for the details of this assignment.

PAPER TOPIC DESCRIPTION

Sociology 220
Paper Topic
10/30/09

A. I want you to find and read TWO articles about A particular type of crime which you are both interested in investigating more and is discussed somewhere in either Chapters 4, 5, or 6 of our text. Those chapters cover three broad types of crime: violent, property, and white collar crime; but, rather than focus on one of those broad catergories, I want you to focus more specifically on ONE particular type of crime such as motor vehicle theft, for example, which is covered in Chapter 5 on property crime.

I believe the best sources for these articles would be popular magazines or newspapers, and AS A LAST RESORT, academic journals. The articles should be fairly recent (within the last 5 years or so) and they should each be AT LEAST TWO PAGES LONG. In your paper, I want you to discuss what insights these articles contain, as well as discuss how they relate to the analysis of that type of crime in the text. Do the articles support, not support, contradict, or offer new insight into the treatment of that type of crime in the text? Finally, I want you to address the question of the implications of what you've learned about this type of criminal behavior for policies to better control or reduce it.

B. The paper should be roughly 6-7 pages (double-spaced typewritten). PLEASE TURN IN XEROX COPIES OF BOTH ARTICLES ALONG WITH YOUR PAPER. Be sure to indicate the page number and source of any passages from the articles or text which you quote in your paper. No bibliography is required since you will be turning in your outside sources (the articles) along with the paper.

C. This paper is due on THURSDAY, NOV. 19TH, at which time everyone will be called upon to give a brief summary of your findings to the rest of the class (5 minutes, tops). The paper is worth 50 points and the presentation 5 points.

***ONCE YOU FINISH "GANG LEADER FOR A DAY" YOU SHOULD START READING THESE CHAPTERS AND SEARCHING FOR ARTICLES.***

"Gang Leader for a Day" Essay & New Family Activity

Now, with the midterm exam behind us, it is time to move on. As I noted yesterday, we are going to take a break from the text and read and discuss "Gang Leader for a Day." Try to read through Chapter 1 for Thursday 10/22, and just continue reading over roughly the next week and a half until you finish it. You'll find it a much more enjoyable and interesting read than the text. Below are descriptions of two things we are going to do with this book. First, is a description of our second out-of-class essay and second, is a family activity in connection with this book. PLEASE READ THESE OVER CAREFULLY AND KEEP THEM IN MIND AS YOU READ THE BOOK.

ESSAY II

In a review of an old criminology text published in the 1950s, Prof. E.A. Ahrens outlines a broader understanding of crime which he contends is rooted in a disordered world and not in any particular biological, psychological, or sociological variables which the theories in our text are based on. In this regard, I believe Prof. Ahrens has some valuable insight to offer in terms of understanding crime in the spirit of what the author of our text refers to as "Integrative Theories of Crime." (p. 98)

For this next out-of-class essay, I want you to address broadly how aspects of "Gang Leader for a Day" relate to the following passage from Prof. Ahrens' review. More specifically, I want you to make THREE such connections between the book and the passage below. Those connections can be fairly broad or more specific, but in either case it would be helpful if you can either quote a relevant passage from "Gang Leader" or at least indicate the chapter from which you are drawing these points. In this context, BE SURE TO CITE PAGE NUMBERS FROM WHICH THE QUOTES OR OTHER REFERENCES COME. Your essay should be roughly 3 pages, and it is due on THURSDAY, NOV. 5TH.

AHRENS' PASSAGE: "Actions do not take place in a vacuum, but in a world of ordered objects. A familiar fact in life is to find ourselves in situations in which no intelligent act is possible. At such times we are at the mercy of those situations. We are not responsible for what happens then. This does not mean that no such thing as responsibility exists. It is not some absolute in the individual possessed at all time and under all conditions. Rather, it is a question of our world and our relation to it. In a rightly ordered world, to whose objects we have access, we gain the capacity for intelligent action. Responsibility itself is a condition achieved through a right ordering of our world. Conversely, it is lost with its disorganization. An individual will plan to avoid situations in which he cannot live and act. But the power in this direction on the part of individuals is limited. Each exists within a societal frame which he cannot modify. This frame may be such that at some point in it some individuals can't even exist, let alone act intelligently. This means that responsibility is not merely individual, as the common view has it, but corporate as well. These disordered areas of our life in which human life inevitably suffers, grows peverse, degenerates are the creations of a society lacking intelligence and possessing wrong aims in life. And, we suggest, that it is our corporate life and its failure,...where the explanation (of crime) lies."

As you reflect on this passage, do not worry about comprehending every sentence necessarily. Think of the broader point he is making, which I believe you'll see has relevance to "Gang Leader for a Day." One specific point of vocabulary that you should find helpful is Ahrens' use of the term "corporate." He is using this term in its original Latin meaning, which is "to embody." So "corporate life" is an embodied life, in which we have access to the objects necessary to our survival and cultural development as human beings. He is NOT using corporate as a synonym for business.
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FAMILY ACTIVITY ON "GANG LEADER FOR A DAY":

As we work our way through "Gang Leader for a Day," I want each of the families to address the questions listed below. I will give you some class time for you to confer with your family members and come up with your responses to each of those questions. At the conclusion of our discussion of the book, I will call on each of the families to present their findings to the class, in which you should state your answer to each question along with a brief defense in NO MORE THAN A LONG PARAGRAPH. We will try to collectively decide what the best answers are. I will, then, post these "best answers" on the blog and this will constitute the material from which I may make up questions for the final exam on this book. All participants will earn 6 activity points for this exercise, and for each answer selected to represent the best of the class that family will earn a bonus point, so it is possible to earn up to 3 bonus points for this exercise.

You will need to get on this soon. Hopefully, by next week you will be well along in your reading of "Gang Leader for a Day," and I will give you time on both Tues. 10/27 & Thurs. 10/29 to confer. I'd like to wrap this up on TUESDAY, NOV. 3RD, WHICH WILL BE THE DATE I WILL EXPECT EACH FAMILY TO HAVE FORMULATED YOUR RESPONSES AND BE PREPARED TO PRESENT THEM IN CLASS.

HERE ARE THE QUESTIONS:
(1) What did you find was the MOST SURPRISNG FACT OR OBSERVATION?

(2) What do you believe is the MOST INSIGHTFUL PASSAGE IN THE BOOK (no more than a paragraph)?

(3) What do you believe is the MOST IMPORTANT LESSON to be drawn from the book in terms of understanding and dealing with gangs?
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Reminders & Note About Text's Treatment of Labeling Theory

First, don't forget to check out the previous post (for Oct. 15) which contains the family questions and answers that will be on the midterm exam coming up next Tuesday 10/20. Also, as I believe we agreed yesterday in class, I will make myself available for any questions you might have about the midterm on Monday 10/19 from roughly 1:00-2:30. Come by my office (Main 121). If several people show up at once, we may move to a nearby classroom, in which case I will put a note on my office door. Also, you can email me questions, but make sure to do so by Monday morning at the latest, and I'll try to respond as quickly as I can.

Second, in checking out the text's treatment of labeling theory last night again, I was a bit dismayed to discover that some of my classroom and blog comments were unwarranted. Hagan actually does a better job than I gave him credit for. He does address labeling as an independent variable (or causal factor). He also references Becker and the distinction between primary and secondary deviance. Although I would still argue he could have done a better job on that theory, I was off-base to accuse him of missing things he did not miss. Nonetheless, I believe the account of labeling theory I gave in my lecture notes on the blog is the one you should focus on for the midterm and it is still better than what is in the text.

AGAIN, CHECK OUT THE FAMILY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FOR THE MIDTERM IN THE PREVIOUS POST FOR OCT. 15TH. See you next Tuesday.

Family Questions for the Midterm Exam

Below are the family questions and answers which will be part of the midterm exam next Tuesday 10/20. I did do some editing, as you'll see.

GREEN FAMILY: (Sara, Aubrey, Maya, Melanie, Jeremy) 5pts +1 bonus point

1. In your own words, explain the difference between actions that are MALA IN SE and actions classified as MALA PROHIBITA. (2)

ANSWER: MALA IN SE are acts "bad in themselves," or forbidden behaviors for which there is wide-scale consensus on the mores of prohibition. MALA PROHIBITA are acts that are "bad because they have been prohibited," or not viewed as bad in themselves but are violations because the law defines them as such.

2. Identify and describe any ONE of the five modes of adapting to the strain of anomie, according to Merton's Anomie Theory. (2)

ANSWER: any ONE of the following: (a) CONFORMIST: accepts the situation; strives for success through conventional, legitimate channels which these individuals obviously have access to. System works for them. (b) INNOVATOR: this is the primary criminal response. One accepts the goal of success, but being blocked from legitimate means, this person turns to illegitimate means (in a sense, innovates or creates his/her own means). Engaged in mostly by lower class (a point Hagan does not mention). (c) RITUALIST: person gives up on the struggle for success as society defines it, lowers his/her expectations to the point where they can be satisfied through conventional means. He considered this "deviant" or abnormal, although I would contend that it is a rational response to living with scarcity. (d) RETREATIST: this is the escapist response. Person gives up on both the goal of success and the means -- turns to alcohol and/or drugs to, in the words of Timothy Leary, "tune in, turn on, drop out." Of course, taking illegal drugs is a crime, not to mention the fact that to support a drug habit one often has to resport to crime -- theft. (e) REBEL: rejects both the ends and the means; that is, rejects the "system" altogether and seeks to overturn it, which would include violent means which would obviously be criminal.

3. Why are the biological and psychological theories of crime not adequate? (2)

ANSWER: Because the individual is not a separate and distinct biological or psychological being. The individual is also a social and cultural being, so the social and cultural dimension must be taken into account. Indeed, what constitutes crime itself is a matter of social definition.


RED FAMILY: (Skylar, Kevin, Wilson, John, Catherine) 5pts.

1. In Charles Goring's book, "The English Convict," how did he challenge Lombroso's biological theory of crime? (2)

ANSWER: He used a much broader, more representative sample of the normal population and found no significant differences in physical appearance between them and a sample of convicted criminals in prison.

2. Briefly explain the difference between UNDERCRIMINALIZATION and OVERCRIMINALIZATION. (2)

ANSWER: UNDERCRIMINALIZATION is where the criminal law fails to prohibit acts that many feel are "mala in se" or bad in themselves. Whereas OVERCRIMINALIZATION involves the overextension of criminal law to cover acts that are inappropriately or not responsibly enforced by such measures.


BLUE FAMILY: (Marie, Kit, Meredith, Jessica) 5pts + 1 bonus point.

1. In the article, "Phantom Numbers Haunt the War on Drugs," what quote did I cite in class which referred to statistics, politicians, and lampposts? (1)

ANSWER: "Politicians are said to use statistics the way drunks use lampposts, for support rather than illumination."

2. Describe the difference between CRIME and DEVIANCE. (2)

ANSWER: DEVIANCE is any act that is considered outside the "norms of behavior," whereas CRIME is a violation of law and a subset of deviance.

3. What theory does Hagan discuss under the MISTAKEN heading: "Social Process Theory?" (1)

ANSWER: Social Disorganization theory.


BLACK FAMILY: (Thomas, Matt, Natalie, Grant) 5pts.

1. Identify any TWO reasons why international comparisons of crime may be inaccurate. (2)

ANSWER: Any TWO of the following: (1) Varying definitions, legal codes -- define crimes in different ways; (2) Recording practices may differ -- different police departments record things differently; (3) Operating practices -- in some countries only crimes reaching court are recorded.

2. Briefly describe Lombroso's theory of atavism. (2)

ANSWER: Criminals were seen as "throwbacks" to an earlier and more primitive evolutionary period. Such born criminals could be identified by certain physical stigmata -- outward appearances, particularly facial, which tended to distinguish them from noncriminals.
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That's it. Remember, these will be on the exam. Each will be placed in the appropriate chronological order on the exam.

Family Activity: Making Up Midterm Exam Questions

With our midterm exam coming up on Tuesday, Oct. 20th, you need to start making up some short-answer questions, as we did yesterday (Thurs. 10/8) toward the end of class. Below are the details of what I want each of the families to do:

Drawing on anything we've covered in class, including handouts and blog material, since the beginning of the semester, I want each of the families to come up with FOUR short-answer questions. Keep in mind some of the samples I have given in class as well as what you came up with in class after our first brainstorming session yesterday. I do NOT want any True/False or Multiple-Choice questions. After the families submit these questions to me, I will review them and try to select at least TWO from each family. If I decide to use more than two, that family will earn a bonus point for each additional question I choose. So, you may earn a maximum of two bonus points for this exercise. Please keep in mind that I will be looking for questions that deal with fairly significant points, not relatively insignificant facts. When you submit the questions, also include the answers as well.

I will give you some more class time on Tuesday 10/13 to consult with your family members. Each family should designate someone to be responsible to email me your four questions NO LATER THAN WEDNESDAY, OCT. 14TH BY 1PM. If you finish on Tuesday, you may just hand them in on a sheet of paper, or you could drop off a sheet of paper with your family's questions sometime Wed. morning. I need to have them then so I can make my selections and then post them on this blog, as well as make up the test itself.

All particpating family members will earn 5 activity points for this exercise.

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Finally, do not forget to check out the lecture notes on Chapter 3 that I have posted on this blog over the past week. Remember, you will need to study that material for the midterm, regardless of how far I am able to get in class lecture by the end of next week.

More Lecture Notes: Chapter 3

I left off yesterday (Wed. 10/7) having finished social control or bonding theory (p. 92 in the text). So, let me pick up there:

5. DEVELOPMENTAL/LIFE COURSE THEORY (DLC) -- I am unfamiliar with this. From Hagan's references it appears to be fairly recent, and I would say that many of those 10 assumptions are fairly self-evident. I would stress the youth factor -- peaks 15-19 and begins to decline in 20s. Also, the earlier you begin committing crime, the more likely you will have a long criminal career. And perhaps #9: "Prior to age 20, revenge, excitement, or anger may motivate offenders, while after this age, utilitarian motives predominate." (p. 93)

6. Finally, I do not see that Farrington's "AP Theory" or Sampson & Laub's "Life Course" Criminality contributes much of any significance.


CRITICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

A. Whereas the theories we've looked at so far accept the status quo and try to explain why individuals deviate from existing laws, these critical theories call into question the status quo -- suggesting that society or the law may be the real problem.

1. LABELING THEORY (OR SOCIETAL REACTION) -- the author does not do a terribly good job on this. One of the main problems in his presentation is that he does not clearly distinguish between treating labeling as a dependent vs. an independent variable, as we'll see. What he sees as the critical aspect of labeling theory has mainly to do with labeling as a dependent variable. So, let me take a whack at this.

a. This is an unusual theory which does not focus on anything in the criminal's background, but rather on how society (especially the criminal justice system) treats the criminal -- that is, LABELS, STIGMATIZES him, and how this societal reaction in turn tends to reinforce the behavior.

b. Labeling can be treated as both CAUSE (INDEPENDENT VARIABLE) and EFFECT (DEPENDENT VARIABLE).

(1) As DEPENDENT VARIABLE OR EFFECT: the question examined is why certain behavior is socially defined as wrong or bad and certain people or groups are selected for stigmatization (i.e., how labels develop).

(a) One basic answer offered -- "The powerful (or so-called moral entrepreneurs) in society decide which behavior will be banned or discreditied as deviant or illegal." More likely that the lower class and minorities will be labeled, and that the label will stick. (This seems to be your author's focus and where the critical aspect comes in -- eg., the criminalization of drug abuse, or certain kinds of drug abuse, has a lot to do with class/racial politics. But he does not explain this very well at all.)

(2) But the heart of the theory focuses on labeling as an INDEPENDENT VARIABLE OR CAUSAL FACTOR, exploring the question of how these discrediting labels can lead to a continuation of the criminal and deviant behavior. Or, literally create a criminal or deviant identity in a person.

c. Labeling theory (like differential association) is largely based on the SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST view of the self -- Cooley's "looking glass self" notion, that our self is really a reflection of what others think of us. Society, and especially the primary groups we connect with, are like a mirror in which we see ourselves reflected. The image in the mirror creates a "SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY" -- that we strive to live up to the attitudes and expectations of others.

(1) To quote one of the leading labeling theorists, Howard Becker, from his 1963 book, "The Outsiders":
"One of the most crucial steps in the process of building a stable pattern of deviant behavior is likely to be the experience of BEING CAUGHT AND PUBLICLY LABELED AS A DEVIANT. WHETHER A PERSON TAKES THIS STEP OR NOT DEPENDS NOT SO MUCH ON WHAT HE DOES AS ON WHAT OTHER PEOPLE DO...being caught and branded as a deviant has important consequences for one's further social participation and self-image." (Akers, p. 124) -- No hint of this in your authors' treatment of this theory.

(2) So, society imposing labels such as criminal, dope addict, sexual predator, crazy, etc. (perhaps note Scheff's "Being Mentally Ill") tends to foster such a self concept and behavior in those so labeled.

(3) Chambliss's "Saints and Roughnecks" also provides a good illustration, and it adds an important element -- how one responds to the label. (Intro. text handout -- "The Power of Labels: The Saints and the Roughnecks")

(4) Labeling theorists would also emphasize that this theory is designed to explain SECONDARY DEVIANCE, NOT PRIMARY DEVIANCE (or the initial act), and herein lies one of the greatest weaknesses of this theory.

d. Prof. Ronald Akers (who Hagan does cite), among many others, has been a long-time critic of labeling theory. He objected to the notion that we disregard the actual behavior of the deviant (in favor of society's reaction), and he noted that even powerless people are able to resist applicaion of the label. (that is, as Hagan observes, the "theory may be overly deterministic." p. 95)

(1) It is the factors that led to the initial act of deviance (which labeling theorists ignore, by their own admission) that may be the most important in explaining the perpetuation of the deviant behavior.

(2) As Prof. Akers comments -- "People are labelled as delinquent, criminal, homosexual, mentally ill, drug addicts, child molesters, and so on largely on the basis of overt acts they have committed or are believed to have committed. Therefore, the deviant behavior itself is prior to and forms the basis for the stigmatizing label. THE BEHAVIOR CEATES THE LABEL MORE THAN THE LABEL CREATES THE BEHAVIOR; AND SUBSEQUENT DEVIANT BEHAVIOR CONTINUES THE LABEL MORE THAN THE LABEL CONTINUES THE BEHAVIOR."

(a) Indeed, research appears to show that those who have committed primary deviance and have NOT been detected (and labeled) are just as likely as labeled offenders to develop deviant careers. (which is part of the message of the so-called DEVELOPMENTAL/LIFE COURSE THEORY.)

e. A later variation on the labeling thesis, John Braithwaite's "Crime, Shame, and Integration" (1988) (brought out in the text) suggested the possibility of a POSITIVE role for labeling. He distinguished between DISINTEGRATIVE SHAMING (negative) and REINTEGRATIVE SHAMING (positive).

(1) Reintegrative shaming is where shaming is designed to create genuine remorse and bring the person back into the community (rather than ostracize him). Eg., restorative justice (apologies to victims), restitution, even drug courts. Famous recent example would be South Africa's Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

f. Back in the '70s the labeling thesis did have some impact on criminal justice system policy, inspiring so-called "juvenile diversion programs" -- avoid stigmatizing juvenile offenders and thereby locking them into a life of crime (according to the theory). Unfortunately, studies of such diversion programs have not demonstrated much effectiveness in stopping juveniles from continuing to commit crimes (most likely because nothing is done to substantially alter their often dead-end life circumstances).

(1) Nonetheless, (as I believe Hagan agrees), I believe avoiding the criminal justice system (prisons especially) whenever possible makes sense (as drug courts do, for example). Most non-violent offenders and drug abusers need help more than punishment and the stigma attached to punishment.

g. Labeling theory may have been a product of its time -- it became popular in the '60s to criticize the criminal justice system (just as the so-called "establishment" was under attack) -- to see it as part of the problem, which I believe was important to recognize. But by the late '70s it was beginning to be rejected in part because a more conservative mood took hold.

h. Finally, I like Prof. Akers' summation of the PRINCIPAL STRENGTH and PRINCIPAL WEAKNESS of labeling theory: "The principal strength of labeling theory is that it calls attention to the unintended consequences of social control. Its principal weakness is that it essentially ignores primary deviance and seriously underestimates the influence that other variables have on behavior in the first place and continue to have on its future occurrence."


2. CONFLICT THEORY, LEFT REALISM AND PEACEMAKING, RADICAL (OR MARXIST) THEORY, FEMINIST THEORY

a. These perspectives not only represent "critical sociology" but also are among the more contemporary theories in criminology. To my mind, none of them represents much of an improvement over the traditional "social process" or "structural" theories we covered. They tend to be more IDEOLOGICAL, concerned with exposing biases in our criminal justice system.

(1) Conflict theory -- biases based on class and race
(2) Marxist theory -- biases based on class
(3) Feminist theory -- biases based on gender, in particular the subordinate position of women in our society.

b. CONFLICT THEORY -- goes back to Marx; several theorists are mentioned and there are some differences among them. But GENERALLY they see law and its enforcement as a product of the more powerful segments of society imposing upon the less powerful or powerless. Social order is achieved through coercion rather than consensus.

(1) Of course, inequality in society is manifest not just along class lines but along RACIAL lines. Although I do NOT see W.E.B. DuBois as an early "critical criminologist," he certainly did expose racial bias and inequality in American society during his long career.

(2) In terms of advocacy -- "...conflict theorists think that a radical restructuring of society is necessary to eliminate inequality and get at the true causes of crime. Conflict theory argues that, minimally, we need a more 'just' justice system, where 'crimes in the suites' is treated in the same fashion as 'crime in the streets.'" (p. 96) -- but I would say much more than this would be needed to achieve a "just" justice system. (Also, has some relevance to "Gang Leader for a Day")

c. RADICAL (MARXIST) THEORY -- Hagan stresses the ideological nature of this perspective, which is a problem: that the capitalist economic system which fosters inequality it also responsible for crime. Let me add --

(1) The Marxists may have a point in suggesting that capitalist societies tend to have higher crime rates than more egalitarian socialist ones. But they have been guilty of idealizing socialist systems or just assuming they would have lower crime rates. Also, they did not seem to be aware of the obvious differences in crime rates between various capitalist countries.

(2) An interesting point some Marxist theorists have raised is -- that as the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (I would even say, China) become more capitalist (and inequality grows) their crime rates have risen dramatically. But that is a bit simplistic -- must consider how repressive the former Soviet Union was, and that other things could explain the surge in crime.

d. FEMINIST THEORY -- criminology has historically been a predominantly male enterprise, focusing on explaining male criminality. But also feminist theorists have pointed to biases in our criminal justice system based on gender inequality.

(1) Hagan does not make much of a case for this, and neither can I, but this is not to say we should not be sensitive to gender biases and stereotypes about women in criminological theory as well as the operation of our criminal justice system.


INTEGRATIVE THEORIES OF CRIME

A. Hagan notes that an integrative theory involves more than just idenitfying multiple factors -- biological, psychological, sociological. "Integrative theories combine various theoretical approaches into one theory." Eg., link them sequentially (end-to-end): strain leading to joining a subculture where learning takes place, leading to crime.

B. Neither of the two examples mentioned (Elliot and Thornberry) are very "noteworthy," based on weakenesses these theorists themselves recognized.

C. Integrating theories that are flawed to begin with is NOT the answer to understanding crime. And I believe the big flaw in these theories, as well as in the social sciences in general, is a misperception of the nature of the individual -- how our lives and characters reflect the larger institutional order. And it is in the flaws of that larger institutional order that crime originates. Some of the sociological theories vaguely recognize this, but never develop it fully.

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That brings us to the end of Chapter 3. Let me just say, finally, that I plan to follow-up on that last critical point (C) after the midterm exam.

More Lecture Notes

Disregard the Oct. 6 post. This post will pick up where the previous post (Oct. 5th) left off. Again, I plan to post all of my lecture notes for Chapter 3, but we will also be covering them in class, as I did yesterday. Finally, especially for those of you who were absent, I handed out a write-up of our first out-of-class essay yesterday. It will be due next Tuesday (Oct. 13th).


SOCIAL PROCESS THEORY

A. I would argue that the theory discussed under this heading really does NOT belong here.

1. The Chicago School and human ecology was the inspiration for SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY which is a MACRO theory that looks at varying crime rates especially in different parts of the city and suggests that those "natural areas" of the city marked by social disorganization have higher crime rates.

a. So what were some of the social structural indicators of social disorganization that gave rise to higher crime rates? An especially crime-prone area was what they called the "zone of transition" -- an area near the commercial core which was changing from residential to commercial. It was characterized by physical decay, poor, often abandoned, housing, incomplete and broken families, high rates of illegitimate births, and an unstable, transient, heterogeneous population -- all indicators of social disorganization. What they called the "rooming house area" was another high crime area.

(1) Other characteristics identified in later versions of the theory (Sampson and Groves, 1989): lack of informal friendship networks, low participation in organizations, etc. (not mentioned in the text)

b. Hagan talks about Shaw and McKay's "Social Disorganization Theory," and stresses the shift to pathological environments as the cause of crime rather than abnormal individuals. (Which, again, underscores its MACRO focus, a point the author neglects.)

c. Let me also add to the author's inadequate treatment of this theory -- these theorists also contended that rapid industrialization and urbanization caused this social disorganization which, in turn, undermined social control exercised through traditional social order and values.
(In some ways they sound like a 1920s & '30s version of the 1980s "Moral Majority," a fundamentalist Christian political movement which decried the breakdown of the family, secularization of society, commercialization, even urbanization as giving rise to a breakdown of traditional morality, hence the higher rates of crime and deviance.)

d. Certainly, things have changed in our cities and inner cities. If anything, one could argue conditions have deteriorated even further in our inner cities especially, and crime rates are even higher today. This is brought out in books such as "The Truly Disadvantaged" by William Julius Wilson (who, as you'll read in "Gang Leader for a Day," was a mentor to Venkatesh. In fact, I believe his book could be used in defense of the social disorganization theory.)

(Hagan does not get into any of the following points on social disorganization theory)

e. Nonetheless, critics note that often research on this theory does not carefully measure social disorganization. For example, "The very fact that crime and deviance are high within an area is itself sometimes used, TAUTOLOGICALLY, as an empirical indicator that the area is socially disorganized."

(1) And even in the most socially disorganized areas only a minority of youths or adults are involved in crime. So, how would you explain the majority's law-abiding behavior?

(2) The early social disorganization theorists, as C. Wright Mills brought out in "The Ideology of Social Pathologists" (1937), had a strong anti-urban bias. They tended to see their small-town, religious upbringing as an ideal. In other words, their view is more ideological than scientific.

f. Despite its apparent bias, among other problems, I believe it makes sense and it suggests the need to address poor social conditions (indicators of social disorganization) in order to address the crime problem. (For example, this is evident in Michael Massing's "The Fix," in which he finds the drug problem most serious among the homeless, most socially disorganizaed population.)


2. ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY, I would argue, really fits more logically in the deterrence/ rational choice camp -- the calculating criminal has more opportunities to commit crime because of changes in our routine activities.

a. I prefer the following formulation, which is a bit different from what your author calls the three "earthy" (whatever that means) elements of crime:

(1) person(s) motivated to commit crime (the theory does not attempt to explain this motivation, just assumes it).

(2) suitable target or victim.

(3) absence of formal or informal control agents.

b. Our "routine activities" have changed significantly since World War II, not to mention the explosion of consumer goods -- cars, electronic devices, etc. -- that one might steal.

(1) more homes unattended during the day (both spouses working)
(2) convenience stores open 24/7
(3) ATMs
(4) identity theft/credit cards/Internet

c. This theory ties in directly to commonsense advice about crime prevention -- eg., neighborhood crime watch, environmental design such as more lighting, hedges or bushes cut back or taken out, etc. -- can get advice from local police dept. Unfortunately, there appears to be a lack of research evaluating the extent to which these precautions really work and help reduce the incidence of crime.


3. The next theory, Sutherland's DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY, really belongs under the SOCIAL PROCESS heading because it is primarily a MICRO-level (or "processual") theory, focusing on what leads an individual to engage in criminal behavior.

a. The original theory is stated in 9 propositions, which Hagan quotes in their entirety. But I believe just a few are really crucial:

(1) "CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR IS LEARNED" -- which is significant because it placed criminal behavior in the same category with other behaviors which are learned.

(2)&(3) "IT IS LEARNED IN INTERACTION WITH OTHER CRIMINALS, IN PARTICULAR CRIMINAL GROUPS, WHICH ARE INTIMATE AND PERSONAL." -- the inspiration for these propositions is to be found in the broader theoretical perspective known as SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM (NOT human ecology, as in the text), and its notion of the "looking-glass self" -- how our personalities are formed in interaction with others in primary group settings.

(6) (The heart of the theory, according to Sutherland himself) "A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions FAVORABLE to the violation of law over definitions UNFAVORABLE to the violation of law."

(7) Finally, "Differential association may vary in FREQUENCY, DURATION, PRIORITY, and INTENSITY." -- which was offered in an effort to introduce measurement, quantification; but as far as I know, no one has actually done this (i.e., put numbers to those variables).

b. Some have characterized this theory by using the old adage -- "birds of a feather flock together" -- which is NOT really accurate because it suggests that one is a criminal to begin with and then seeks to associate with other criminals. Rather, as Ronald Akers has suggested, it should be -- "a bird joining a flock and then changing its feathers" -- which is more accurate but less lyrical.

c. Speaking of Ronald Akers, your author mentions him in passing as offering a variation of differential association theory. Let me elaborate on this just a bit, since I once used Prof. Akers' book. His variation is called SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY, and it basically elaborates on the learning process involved, offering a BEHAVIORIST model.

(1) DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT -- whether you refrain from or commit a crime depends on past, present, and anticipated future rewards and punishments for one's actions. (a) POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT -- money, social approval (pat on the back), social rewards. (b) NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT -- escaping punishment. That when you commit a criminal act and are NOT punished, this also tends to reinforce the behavior (eg., a child who uses foul language and is never punished or confronted will probably continue to use it).

(2) Akers also elaborated on the role of IMITATION -- that the contact with the criminal element does not necessarily have to be face-to-face or personal.

d. I see both Miller's "Focal Concerns" (p. 90) and Matza's "Delinquency and Drift" in the context of differential association as specifying some of "the definitions favorable to the violation of law" that one learns by having contact with criminals.

(1) Take a couple examples of Sykes and Matza's "TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALIZATION" (p. 91) such as DENIAL OF RESPONSIBILITY or DENIAL OF INJURY -- by learning these excuses or rationalizations one is more likely to engage in criminal behavior.

e. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION (and its variants) is a popular theory. It is also one of the most generally APPLICABLE, underlying group therapy approaches to rehabilitation. I would say that, generally speaking, PROBABTION and PAROLE programs relate insofar as they seek to guarantee a person stays away from former criminal associations.

(1) Of course, one could also point out that such programs have not been terribly successful for a lot of reasons, one of which may have to do with a weakness of theory itself.

f. I contend that differential association (or its variants) does not get to the root of the problem -- where crime itself comes from. It may be ok as a theory of criminal behavior but NOT as a theory of crime.

(1) According to the theory, criminal learn from other crimnals, who, in turn, learned from other criminals, and so on, ad infinitum...... So, where did the first criminal group come from to get the ball rolling, so to speak? The devil? (really all causal explanations involve such an infinite regress.) Sutherland himself even admitted as much when he made the following remark: "Since criminal behavior is thus developed in association with criminals, it means that CRIME IS THE CAUSE OF CRIME." which is an entirely CIRCULAR argument.

(2) Ultimately, we want to understand the origin of crime itself -- how it grows out of the larger society. This point can be illustrated by use of a MEDICAL ANALOGY: ultimately we want to treat the disease and not merely the symptoms of the disease. Which is not to say, however, that we should ignore treating the symptoms, which differential association may be helpful in doing. But it is no cure.


4. SOCIAL CONTROL (or SOCIAL BONDING) THEORY may also be considered a social process theory, but these theorists approach the question of explaining criminal behavior in a distinctive way. Rather than try to directly explain why people deviate from social and legal norms, these theorists ask: why does anyone conform? Why don't we all violate the rules? That is, they are interested in explaining conforming behavior first.

a. Another way of describing this theory in general would be to say -- "Conformity and crime are two sides of the same coin. It makes no meaningful difference which of the two a theory claims to explain, because to account for one accounts for the other." (True? Could you see how this statement might apply to differential association in reverse fashion?)

b. The basic answer is: we conform because certain social controls (bonds or containment) prevent us from committing crimes, by encouraging us to conform. And when these controls weaken, breakdown, or are non-existent, then deviance is likely to result.

c. Control theorists argue that people are motivated to conform because of social controls or bonds but NEED NO SPECIAL MOTIVATION TO VIOLATE THE LAW -- or, that we are all NATURALLY inclined to deviance and this natural motivation needs to be checked or controlled. That is, they assume anyone would violate the law if they could get away with it (similar to "myth of Gyges" in Book II of Plato's "Republic"), although Hirschi and others deny this assumption is crucial to their theory.

d. Travis Hirschi's SOCIAL BONDING THEORY has been one of the most popular and influential versions of control theory, which Hagan covers in just a few sentences. So, let me expand on the text's discussion, in part because I believe the theory has some important points to offer.

(1) There are FOUR elements or "BONDS" that Hirschi sees as crucial to conformity, and conversely, when weak or non-existent, open the door to criminal and deviant behavior.

(a) ATTACHMENT TO OTHERS -- family, peers (even delinquent peers in the original statement of the theory). In a sense, such attachments force you to consider others, so you are more likely to act in conventional ways. (Research evidence, however, clearly challenges this idea when it comes to attachment to delinquent others -- in this respect you could say differential association trumps social bonding theory.)

(b) COMMITMENT -- extent to which an individual has a "stake in conformity" (job, home, spouse, children, etc.) For example, stable, well-kept neighborhoods tend to be ones where most people own their homes, where they have a STAKE (financial or otherwise) in maintaining their home and surrounding neighborhood.

(c) INVOLVEMENT -- being immersed in conventional activities. Need for afterschool programs or something like "midnight basketball leagues." Relates to what I would call the "boredom theory of crime." (Relevance of article, "3:00, Nowhere to Go")

(d) BELIEF -- endorsement of conventional law and morality. Religion.

(2) To give you some idea of an index -- or how one might measure the strength of these bonds -- you could use something such as ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT: high academic achievement would be indicative of one's COMMITMENT, INVOLVEMENT, BELIEF in school, as well as ATTACHMENT in terms of connections with teachers, guidance counselors, fellow students, etc.

e. Hagan mentions an update of this theory offered by Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990) -- SELF-CONTROL THEORY. Those with high self-control, developed early, are more likely to stay out of trouble compared with those who have low self-control.
high self-control -- lots of self-discipline
low self-control -- impulsive, emotional

(1) Makes sense, although they have had problems defining or distinguishing high self-control from low self-control.

(2) Also, it may be true that they are over-reaching with this theory, especially when you consider white collar crime. (But in contrast to the author, I do NOT see this as a SEVERE FLAW. p. 92)

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That brings us to the bottom of p. 92 in the text. I should be able to blog the rest of the chapter on Friday, and you want to check that out especially because it will include comments on CRITICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY.

Lecture Notes: Chapter 3

More Lecture Notes

This not only sounds like a broken record, it is one. All this week I will be posting lecture notes in an effort to get ahead, but also to assist you in understanding the major theories which the author presents in Chapter 3 of the text. Not only will I post these lecture notes, but I also plan to cover them in class as well to clarify them and make up for some of the shortcomings in the author's presentation of them in the text. Since you will have the notes, you won't have to be as vigilant in class in terms of taking notes, but I would also remind you that in my class presentation I will probably include some examples not in the notes and would certainly welcome questions and comments you may have. After we get beyond this chapter in the text, I do not plan to post my lecture notes and I will be asking the families (to be determined this week) for their imput as well.

Last time (Thurs. 10/1) I quoted a passage from an article entitled, "Elementary, Dr. Watson. The Neurotransmitters Did It," with reference to modern biological theories. I decided to xerox the whole article and hand it out in class tomorrow (Tues. 10/6). It makes a very good point, as I emphasized in class, that perhaps the most that biological theories can claim is that they may identify PREDISPOSITIONS or PROPENSITIES that may lead to criminal behavior but no biological factor can be regarded as THE cause of criminal behavior, as some of the early theories suggested.

We left off talking about psychological theories. After briefly going over the psychoanalytic view of Freud (see p. 80 especially), Hagan gets into PSYCHOMETRY --

C. Hagan then briefly covers a couple different theories under the heading, PSYCHOMETRY, which "is the field that seeks to measure psychological and mental differences between criminals and noncriminals." (p. 80)

1. Generally, he notes that studies have been unable to find conclusive evidence of specific personality characteristics related to criminality.

2. Mentions one study which (rather obviously) "claims the extroverted (outgoing) personality is more delinquent than the introverted (inhibited) personality." (p. 80) --as Homer Simpson might say, "Well, duh!"

3. Hirschi and Hindelang (1977) apparently found an interesting link between IQ and crime. Note their findings (see top, p. 81). But the whole subject of measuring intelligence and relating it to race, as the authors of "The Bell Curve" did, is very controversial (and I would say dubious at best, as I believe Hagan also observes).

4. Also notes more recent psychological reseearch on the connection between ADHD and delinquency.

5. And the special box on the insanity defense (pp. 82-3) criteria runs through the changing standards or tests for this in court. (But it leaves out an important point -- of how rarely the insanity defense is successfully used.)

D. In line with the first criticism of psychological positivism, I would like to state an overall criticism of both the psychological and biological theories --

NEITHER THEORY BY ITSELF (OR EVEN TOGETHER) CAN OFFER A COMPLETELY ADEQUATE EXPLANATION FOR CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR FOR THE BASIC REASON THAT: THE INDIVIDUAL IS NOT A SEPARATE AND DISTINCT BIOLOGICAL OR PSYCHOLOGICAL BEING. THE INDIVIDUAL IS ALSO A SOCIAL AND CULTURAL BEING, SO THE SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS MUST BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT. INDEED, WHAT CONSTITUTES A CRIME ITSELF IS A MATTER OF SOCIAL DEFINITION.

I believe most biological and psychological theorists recognize the above point and do not claim that biology or psychology has all the answers.

So, this points us in the direction of the Sociological Theories --

MAINSTREAM SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

Hagan begins by briefly mentioning some of the sociological theories we will be covering, which relate to various social conditions or factors. Generally speaking, sociological theories take a more critical stance toward society, suggesting that society is part of the problem (not just individuals straying from an essentially good society).

(However, the order in which he covers these theories baffles me. It is not chronological nor in any other discernable order. I will follow his lead though, but I will also be adding to and skipping over some of the theories he brings out.)

ANOMIE (OR STRAIN) THEORY

A. Hagan rightly credits Durkheim with developing the concept of "anomie," (but Durkheim did not apply it to crime in general). Durkheim argued that a general breakdown of norms and moral guidelines in society, especially in times of crisis, tends to give rise to higher suicide rates -- what he called "anomic suicide," which he argued was on the rise in modern society.

B. Robert Merton modified this concept significantly in developing what came to be known as "Anomie (or Strain) Theory. This was in the late 1940s, and it remains one of the important sociological theories to this day.

1. "...Merton viewed anomie as a condition that occurs when a discrepancy (or disjunction) exists between societal goals and the (legitimate) means available for their achievement." (p. 84) And the main goal of American society, he contended, was material success (wealth), which is how we tend to measure people's status.

2. This condition of anomie, Merton argued, is endemic to American society. Indeed, one could argue that the gap between the "haves" and "have nots" is as wide as it ever has been, which would lead you to predict more criminal and deviant behavior.

3. Those individuals or groups which are blocked (for whatever reason) from legitimate means to material success feel the pressure or strain more than others and are more likely to resort to illegitimate means to achieve success.

4. Merton argued that there were actually FIVE modes (or ways) of adapting to the strain of anomie (what Hagan refers to in bold print as "modes of personality adaptation.").

(a) CONFORMIST: accepts the situation; strives for success through conventional, legitimate channels which these individuals obviously have access to. System works for them.

(b) INNOVATOR: this is the primary criminal response. One accepts the goal of success, but being blocked from legitimate means, this person turns to illegitimate means (in a sense innovates or creates his/her own means). Engaged in mostly by the lower class ( a point Hagan does not mention).
(I believe, along with David Callahan, author of "The Cheating Culture," this certainly can apply to middle or upper class individuals -- depends on how you define success, what "making it" means. There are undoubtedly higher expectations of success these days among the middle and upper classes which can exacerbate the strain of anomie. See xerox handout of pp. 172-173 from "The Cheating Culture," which is also a good general description of Merton's theory.)

(c) RITUALIST: (See Hagan's description p. 85. I do not know where he got this from or what it necessarily has to do with criminal or deviant behavior.) I believe Merton interpreted this adaptation as follows: person gives up on the struggle for success as society defines it, lowers his/her expectations to the point where they can be satisfied through conventional means. He considered this "deviant" or abnormal, although I would contend that it is a rational response to living with scarcity.

(d) RETREATIST: this is the escapist response. Person gives up on both the goal of success and the means -- turns to alcohol and/or drugs to, in the words of Timothy Leary, "tune in, turn on, drop out." Of course, taking illegal drugs is a crime, not to mention the fact that to support a drug habit one often has to resort to crime -- theft.

(e) REBEL: rejects both the ends and the means; that is, rejects the "system" altogether and seeks to overturn it, which would include violent means which would obviously be criminal.

C. In terms of a critique of Merton's theory, some of the points Hagan brings out are not terribly strong. For example, his first point about the variety of U.S. cultural values could be countered by arguing that despite this variety, it still is GENERALLY true that material success is the dominant value or goal of American culture. And I believe Merton would even concede the second point -- that it does not explain violent crime (which in fact is a weakness of most theories). The final point is a bit more serious. The fact is there is mixed support for the whole notion that there is an INVERSE relationship between social class and crime.

1. As noted, some research found that those with low aspirations and low expectations had the highest offense rates. You would expect more strain and the resulting crime where the gap between aspirations and expectations was greatest.

2. Ronald Akers even challenges the contention that higher unemployment leads to more crime, citing a couple studies from the 1980s. Akers observes, "...there is little evidence that unemployment motivates people to commit criminal acts. Moreover, crime is as likely to affect unemployment as vice versa (especially these days with widespread drug-testing)."

3. Nonetheless, as a MACRO theory, I believe this theory highlights some of the social structural correlates of crime such as poverty and unemployment, especially in the midst of a more prosperous society. And in this context I believe the policy implications of such a theory make sense -- people without access to legitimate opportunities are more likely to turn to crime, so we need to expand legitimate opportunities, especially for young people.
(Legitimate opportunities were clearly lacking in the inner city housing projects where Sudhir Venkatesh did his field work for "Gang Leader for a Day.")

D. Robert Agnew's GENERAL STRAIN THEORY expands the sources of strain. He says strain is due "to negative relationships in which indivivduals feel that they are being mistreated." Of course, there are a lot of negative events -- divorce, financial problems, insults, or physical assaults -- which may lead to anger and frustration and increase the likelihood that one will react in a criminal manner.

E. Albert Cohen's LOWER-CLASS REACTION THEORY focused more on STATUS deprivation (rather than material deprivation) of lower class youth. Feel locked out, not accepted in middle class society. So, they turn middle class values on their head -- basically "act out."

F. Cloward and Ohlin's DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY THEORY -- the likelihood of reacting to the strain of anomie depends on the availability of illegitimate opportunites. In some neighborhoods there exist "illegitimate opportunity structures."

1. Cloward and Ohlin identified three such illegitimate opportunity structures OR illegitimate juvenile subcultures: CRIMINAL, CONFLICT AND RETREATIVE. ("Gang Leader for A Day" really exemplifies all three.)

2. "The implications of Cloward and Ohlin's theory were not lost on policy makers. By improving legitimate opportunities, delinquency could be controlled." (p. 88)-- which, as I noted above, is a policy implication of anomie theory in general.

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That brings us up to SOCIAL PROCESS THEORY, which I may pick up with tomorrow or on Wednesday. Don't forget that tomorrow I will be handing out the write-up of our first out-of-class essay.

Critique of Deterrence Theory & Additional Lecture Notes

I know this sounds like a broken record, but I was frustrated again yesterday (Tues. 9/29) at not getting far enough into Chapter 3, so I am going to use this blog to catch up a bit. In fact, I am toying with the idea of posting my lecture notes on the blog on a regular basis and then using class time to illustrate, elaborate, and discuss the notes further. I'll let you know what I decide on that score.

First, a few comments on my criticism of deterrence theory and its later manifestation, rational choice theory.

In attacking the idea that criminals choose to commit their crimes based on a rational calculation of benefits and costs, I glossed over another critical point -- that well over half of those involved in crimes such as manslaughter or assault were under the influence of alcohol, and alcohol is not known to enhance one's rational faculties.

The passage from Prof. Akers on a study of repeat offenders goes as follows:
"...their actions and assessments of risks were unrealistic, even to some extent irrational. They were unable to make reasonable assessments of the risk of arrest, did little planning for the crime, were uninformed about the legal penalties in the state where the crime was committed."

The focus of criminals (as for many of us) seems to be directed largely to the potential rewards, with little consideration of the possible costs. The book, "Drug War Heresies," makes a similar point: "Criminal offenders are particularly prone to impulsiveness and an inability to delay gratification."

So, to emphasize again, the whole premise of classical and neo-classical theory (or deterrence and rational choice theory) is questionable. Most of us, most of the time, much less criminals, do NOT act in the rationally calculating way this theory assumes.

Finally, such criticism tends to cast doubt on the wisdom of more certain and severe penalties being given in an effort to control or reduce crime. eg. mandatory minimum sentencing, "three strikes and you're out," etc. (The author of the text makes the connection between these punishments and the classical theory but he does NOT clearly draw this critical point.)

That brings us up to the next major heading in the text where I will continue my lecture notes.....

ECOLOGICAL THEORY

A. This theoretical perspective occupies a place in between classical criminology and the biological theory of Lombroso. Although I am not familiar with the theorists mentioned, I believe it would be more accurate to refer to this as the "statistical" or "geographical" theory. What is called "human ecology" will resurface again as the basis for what is called "social disorganization" theory.

B. Both Guerry and Quetelet were looking very broadly at crime rates in whole countries or particular geographic or climatic regions.

1. I agree with the point the author makes about Quetelet -- that consistent variations among crime rates in certain social categories -- age, gender, etc. -- suggests that crime is not simply a matter of idiosyncratic, individual choice.
However, there are all sorts of problems with his so-called "thermic law of crime" -- that temperature has something to do with the types of crime committed, which is questionable.

C. And although the author neglects to bring it out here (even though it is in the subject index and defined in the glossary at the end of the book, p. 399), we need to be aware of the "ecological fallacy": "A problem when group statistics and rates are used in order to describe (or explain) individual behavior."
So, just because the property crime rate is higher in cold climates does NOT mean that somehow the cold causes individuals to steal. Rates are strictly about group-level characteristics.


FORERUNNERS OF MODERN CRIMINOLOGICAL THOUGHT

A. Three big names in the history of Western thought are mentioned which you should all recognize. Hagan treats them all very simplistically. Only ONE had a fairly direct impact on later criminological theory -- that was Karl Marx and his focus on economic inequality in capitalism. Darwin's theory of evolution had a huge impact on social thought and sociology, but NEGLIGIBLE impact on criminology or, more specifically, biological theories of crime. Freud's theories did contribute to a psychoanalytic theory of crime, but other psychological theories were NOT inspired by Freud's view which is looked upon unfavorably these days.

POSITIVISM

A. The main thing about positivism is that it involves the sytematic application of the scientific method. Comte certainly was the "prophet" of positivism -- he promoted it as the best, most appropriate way to look at society, in contrast to a religious or philosophical view of society which prevailed in earlier periods.

1. The other two elements -- discovery & diagnosis of pathology and treatment -- although part of Comte's sociology, are not essential to positivism.
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That brings us up to BIOLOGICAL THEORY, which is where we will pick up tomorrow (Thurs. 10/1).

Lecture Notes: Chapter 2

As usual, I did not get as far as I planned yesterday, so I am going to post some of what I had planned to say in class. Of course, incorporate this material in your notes. Also, I still expect to begin to talk about Chapter 3 in the text on Thursday (9/24), so you should begin reading Chapter 3. And two other reminders: (1) A few of you still have to post your comment on that individual exercise; the deadline is tomorrow (9/24). (2) We will be having our first inclass essay soon, perhaps next week. I will let you know about that hopefully by tomorrow.

On Tuesday (9/22) we were looking at the social and institutional correlates of crime. I finished my remarks on Age and Crime, so let me pick up with:

(2)Gender Differences in Criminality

(a) "Of all the demographic variables, gender is the best predictor of criminality;...The male crime rate exceeds that of females universally, in all nations, in all communities, among all age groups, and in all periods of history for which statistics are available." (p. 33)

(1) In America, if you knew nothing else about a crime, you'd be right 8 or 9 times out of 10 predicting that a male was the perpetrator. And that ratio is even higher in other societies.

(b) But before we go off and concoct some biological argument about why males are more prone to crime, we should note that the ratio between male and female crime varies significantly -- "The female crime rate appears to be closer to the male level in countries in which females enjoy more equality and freedom, and thus an increased opportunity to commit crime." (p. 33) such as the U.S.

(1) Indeed, there is also evidence of a rising female crime rate. "The NCVS for 2001 showed the percentage of estimated female perpetrators increasing from 14 to 19 percent for violent crime. From 1990 to 1998, the number of women in prison grew 48 percent compared to 27 percent for men (which I am sure is largely due to the war on drugs). Between 1988 and 1997, female delinquency cases increased 83 percent." (p. 35)

(c) There undoubtedly has been an "androcentric" (male-centered) bias in criminological research and theory -- most classical theories, as we'll see, focused strictly on men.


(3) Social Class and Crime

(a) Vast majority of those arrested for UCR index crimes (or "street crimes") are from lower social classes. The author discounts bias as a major factor, so it appears that there is something about lower class status that makes people more prone to crime. (Certainly see that in "Gang Leader for a Day")

(1) Traditional view is that social class and crime are INVERSELY related -- see fig. 2.4(a) p. 36. But Hagan reminds us that official statistics undercount white collar crime, so perhaps the BI-MODAL distribution (fig. 2.4(b)) is closer to the reality. (NOTE: if I gave you either one of those graphs on the midterm test, you should be able to tell me in your own words what it reveals.)

(4) Race and Crime

(a) In addition to noting a possible Eurocentric (white) bias in criminology because there have been few black or other minority criminologists, Hagan goes on to debunk racist theories based on discredited race theory or racial classification -- a point which I especially appreciate because I also cover this in the race and ethnic relations class I teach.

(1) Any crime theory based on race must inevitably grapple with the problem that there is no such thing, biologically speaking, as a PURE RACE. As Hagan notes -- "As Sutherland and Cressey (1974) point out, 'There is no avoioding the fact that at least 80 percent of the offenders contributing to the 'black' crime rate are part 'white.'" (p. 37)

(b) This is not to deny the fact that "blacks" (socially defined as such) commit a disproportionate amount of crime, especially violent crime, comapred to "whites." In this context, I believe it is fair to say -- "Much of the discrepancy between black and white crime rates can perhaps be explained by the fact that African Americans until relatively recently have been locked disproportionately into the lower class through a pseudo caste system." (p. 37)

(c) The disproportionate number of arrests and incarceration also raises the question of bias in the criminal justice system, which Hagan generally discounts and cites a couple sources. However, the special box on RACIAL PROFILING (pp. 38-9) presents some strong counter-evidence, especially when we consider the impact of the war on drugs. ("Tulia" will be especially relevant here.)

(1) racial profiling creates a "self-fulfilling prophecy" -- that is, since blacks are generally perceived as more criminal, they are more likely to be SUSPECTED, ARRESTED, and eventually INCARCERATED.

(2) Also, a report by the National Council on Crime and Delinquency, "And Justice for Some" (2000), notes how black and Hispanic delinquents were treated more severely at every step in the juvenile justice system. (p. 40)

(d) Hagan comments on the INTRA-racial nature of crime -- black criminals tend to prey on blacks, whites on whites, Asians on Asians, etc.. (We should not be distracted by the racist implications of the phrase "black-on-black" crime -- as if blacks are the only ones who prey on their own kind.)

(e) He concludes with a box on Native American crime which is exceedingly high, which should not be surprising considering the extreme levels of poverty, lack of educational opportunities, alcoholism on many reservations. Alcohol being a huge factor -- "Most Indians are incarcerated because of crimes they committed while intoxicated." (p. 41)

(f) In MINORITY GROUPS AND CRIME, Hagan elaborates on the point that it is not so much race as social class -- the fact that a large percentage of blacks are concentrated in ghettos which exhibit high rates of social breakdown. (Just think of the housing projects in Chicago where Venkatesh did his field work on gangs.)

(1) But other immigrant groups, and more recently Latinos who have experienced similar conditions, have not had the same rates of crime (which I believe may be due to the fact that many of these Latinos are first-generation immigrants who have a strong cultural base to draw on). Hagan cites some of the findings of the Kerner Commission Report (quoted in the beginning of the chapter) which distinguish the Black experience from that of other groups -- discrimination against them being more institutionalized and persistent.

(2) W.J. Wilson in "The Truly Disadvantaged" (1987) cites conditions (de-industrialization, out-migration of middle class) which kept inner city Blacks in desperate circumstances.

(3) In the end, Hagan poses the question -- "Does minority group status itself produce higher crime rates? In general, the answer to this question is NO. Much depends upon the particular minority group and its specific values and cultural traditions."

(4) There is a GENERATIONAL point that can be made -- first generation immigrants often come from close-knit societies and do not get involved in much crime, whereas second and third generations are more crime prone.


(5) Regional Variation in Crime

(a) He makes a brief comment on regional variation, noting especially that, overall, the South has the highest crime rate of all the different regions. (But he makes no attempt to suggest why.)


(6) Urban/Rural Differences

(a) Urban areas have generally (historically and cross-culturally) had more crime than rural areas. But there is evidence that rural areas and smaller cities are catching up. Of course, in modern, developed societies such as ours there is less difference between cities and the countryside. (But, again, Hagan provides no real suggestion as to why this urban-rural difference.)


That brings us to INSTITUTIONS AND CRIME (p. 45), which is where I will pick up in class tomorrow (Thurs. 9/24). If you have any questions or comments about the above notes, you may raise them in class or post them as comments on this blog and I will do my best to answer them.